The liability rule for constitutional torts

Virginia Law Review

Volumn 99, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 207-270

  Jeffries, John C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

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EID: 84876899270     PISSN: 00426601     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (231)

1. Nixon v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 731, 755 (1982);
2. Cf. Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681, 693 (1997) (finding no immunity for acts unrelated to the office).
3. U.S. Const. art. I, § 6, cl. 1 ("[F]or any Speech or Debate in either House, [Senators and Representatives] shall not be questioned in any other Place.").
4. Tenney v. Brandhove, 341 U.S. 367, 376 (1951) ("The limits of [§ 1983] were not spelled out in debate.
5. See David Achtenberg, Immunity Under 42 U.S.C. § 1983: Interpretive Approach and the Search for the Legislative Will, 86 Nw. U. L. Rev. 497, 502-11 (1992) (showing that immunity doctrine crafted within the boundaries of the legislative history of the 1871 Act would be much narrower than current law).
6. Conceivably, the existence of a statute might help support a defendant's claim that "a reasonable officer could have believed" enforcing it to be lawful, Hunter v. Bryan, 502 U.S. 224, 228 (1991) (per curiam), but the "objective legal reasonableness" of the officer's conduct is analytically independent of legislative authorization
7. Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 639 (1987) (quoting Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 819 (1982)).
8. 386 U.S. 547, 554-55 (1967).
9. Compare Douglas K. Barth, Immunity of Federal and State Judges from Civil Suit- Time for a Qualified Immunity?, 27 Case W. Res. L. Rev. 727, 732 n.29 (1977) (stating that in the nineteenth century, judges of inferior courts could be held liable for malicious acts)
10. And Note, Liability of Judicial Officers Under § 1983, 79 Yale L.J. 322, 325 n.25 (1969) (same)
11. With J. Randolph Block, Stump v. Sparkman and the History of Judicial Immunity, 1980 Duke L.J. 879, 887-91 (finding that such liability extended only to administrative duties).
12. See George Rutherglen, Custom and Usage as Action Under Color of State Law: An Essay on the Forgotten Terms of Section 1983, 89 Va. L. Rev. 925, 942 (2003).
13. See, e.g., Davis v. Bayless, 70 F.3d 367, 374 (5th Cir. 1995) (holding a receiver appointed to recover assets of a judgmentdebtor and the receiver's attorney absolutely immune for wrongful seizure of property of the judgment-debtor's girlfriend);
14. Murray v. Gilmore, 231 F. Supp. 2d 82, 88-89 (D.D.C. 2002) (holding a receiver appointed to reform the D.C. Department of Public and Assisted Housing absolutely immune against an employee's claim of race and sex discrimination, even though the appointing judge would not have enjoyed absolute immunity for similar conduct)
15. 406 F.3d 708 (D.C. Cir. 2005).
16. Pulliam v. Allen, 466 U.S. 522, 542 (1984).
17. 42 U.S.C. § 1983, Pub. L. No. 104-317, § 309(c) (1996).
18. 523 U.S. 44, 47-48 (1998).
19. See David F. Hamilton, The Importance and Overuse of Policy and Custom Claims: A View from One Trench, 48 DePaul L. Rev. 723, 730 (1999)
20. John C. Jeffries, Jr., In Praise of the Eleventh Amendment and Section 1983, 84 Va. L. Rev. 47, 50 (1998)
21. see also George A. Bermann, Integrating Governmental and Officer Tort Liability, 77 Colum. L. Rev. 1175, 1189 (1977)
22. Bogan, 523 U.S. at 56.
23. The question was reserved in Lake Country Estates v. Tahoe Reg'l Planning Agency, 440 U.S. 391, 404 n.26 (1979)
24. Acevedo-Cordero v. Cordero- Santiago, 958 F.2d 20, 22-23 (1st Cir. 1992);
25. Aitchison v. Raffiana, 708 F.2d 96, 98-100 (3d Cir. 1983);
26. Reed v. Vill. of Shorewood, 704 F.2d 943, 952-53 (7th Cir. 1983);
27. Bruce v. Riddle, 631 F.2d 272, 277-79 (4th Cir. 1980).
28. Bogan, 523 U.S. at 55.
29. Scott-Harris v. Fall River, 134 F.3d 427, 440
30. Bogan v. Scott-Harris, 523 U.S. 44 (1998).
31. Bogan, 523 U.S. at 55.
32. 435 U.S. 349, 356 (1978).
33. See, e.g., Forrester v. White, 484 U.S. 219, 224 (1988).
34. Supreme Court of Va. v. Consumers Union, Inc., 446 U.S. 719, 723-24, 731, 736 (1980)
35. These developments are well described and documented in Margaret Z. Johns, A Black Robe Is Not a Big Tent: The Improper Expansion of Absolute Judicial Immunity to Non- Judges in Civil Rights Cases, 59 SMU L. Rev. 265 (2006) [hereinafter Judicial Immunity], to which the discussion in text is indebted.
36. See Rehberg v. Paulk, 132 S. Ct. 1497, 1505 (2012) (applying absolute immunity to testimony before a grand jury);
37. Briscoe v. LaHue, 460 U.S. 325, 334 (1983)
38. Burns v. Reed, 500 U.S. 478, 501 (1991)
39. But see Kurzawa v. Mueller, 732 F.2d 1456, 1458
40. 70 F.3d 367 (5th Cir. 1995).
41. See, e.g., Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 641 (1987) (barring liability if "a reasonable officer could have believed" his or her actions lawful "in light of clearly established law").
42. Forrester v. White, 484 U.S. 219, 230 (1988) (quoting Forrester v. White, 792 F.2d 647, 660 (7th Cir. 1986) (Posner, J., dissenting)).
43. Griffith v. Slinkard, 44 N.E. 1001, 1002 (Ind. 1896).
44. This case was identified as the "first American case" to address the question raised in Imbler v. Pachtman, 424 U.S. 409, 421 (1976).
45. Margaret Z. Johns, Reconsidering Absolute Prosecutorial Immunity, 2005 BYU L. Rev. 53, 111-14
46. See Parker v. Huntington, 68 Mass. (2 Gray) 124, 128 (1854).
47. See Imbler, 424 U.S. at 425
48. This implication was expressly approved in Burns v. Reed, 500 U.S. 478, 494-96 (1993)
49. Butz v. Economou, 438 U.S. 478, 528 n.* (1978)
50. Burns, 500 U.S. at 487-88, 492
51. Kalina v. Fletcher, 522 U.S. 118, 130 (1997) ("Testifying about facts is the function of the witness, not of the lawyer.").
52. See Malley v. Briggs, 475 U.S. 335, 343 (1986)
53. Compare Imbler, 424 U.S. at 427
54. Buckley v. Fitzsimmons, 509 U.S. 259, 274-76 (1993)
55. See Van de Kamp v. Goldstein, 555 U.S. 335, 343-44 (2009)
56. 509 U.S. at 274, 276
57. Compare Broam v. Brogan, 320 F.3d 1023, 1033 (9th Cir. 2003)
58. Hill v. City of New York, 45 F.3d 653, 661 (2d Cir. 1995)
59. Buckley, 509 U.S. at 274 n.5
60. On fabrication of evidence, compare Buckley v. Fitzsimmons, 20 F.3d 789, 795 (7th Cir. 1994)
61. Michaels v. New Jersey, 222 F.3d 118, 123 (3d Cir. 2000)
62. Zahrey v. Coffey, 221 F.3d 342, 356 (2d Cir. 2000)
63. Milstein v. Cooley, 257 F.3d 1004, 1011 (9th Cir. 2001)
64. 384 F.3d 1105 (9th Cir. 2004).
65. Kalina v. Fletcher, 522 U.S. 118, 129-30 (1997)
66. Compare Mink v. Suthers, 482 F.3d 1244, 1262 (10th Cir. 2007)
67. Schrob v. Catterson, 948 F.2d 1402, 1411, 1413 (3d Cir. 1991)
68. 424 U.S. 409, 427, 431 (1976).
69. See, for example, Rehberg v. Paulk, 132 S. Ct. 1497, 1501 (2012)
70. See Rachel E. Barkow, Institutional Design and the Policing of Prosecutors: Lessons from Administrative Law, 61 Stan. L. Rev. 869, 874-87 (2009) (describing the prosecutor as a "leviathan" of "unchecked power");
71. John C. Jeffries, Jr. & John Gleeson, The Federalization of Organized Crime: Advantages of Federal Prosecution, 46 Hastings L.J. 1095, 1117- 25 (1995) (detailing the procedural powers of federal prosecutors).
72. See generally Angela J. Davis, Arbitrary Justice: The Power of the American Prosecutor (2007) (analyzing prosecutorial powers and the potential for abuse).
73. Imbler, 424 U.S. at 420 (referring to "'quasi-judicial' immunity" conferred by lower courts).
74. 373 U.S. 83 (1963).
75. See Imbler, 424 U.S. at 432-33 (White, J., concurring).
76. 373 U.S. at 87
77. See Robert P. Mosteller, Failures of the American Adversarial System to Protect the Innocent and Conceptual Advantages in the Inquisitorial Design for Investigative Fairness, 36 N.C. J. Int'l L. & Com. Reg. 319, 363 (2011)
78. James S. Liebman, Jeffrey Fagan & Valerie West, A Broken System: Error Rates in Capital Cases, 1973-1995, at 5 (2000)
79. Bennett L. Gershman, Bad Faith Exception to Prosecutorial Immunity for Brady Violations, Amicus: Harv. C.R.- C.L. L. Rev.'s Online Companion 1, 13-14 (Aug. 10, 2010), http://harvardcrcl.org/wpcontent/uploads/2010/08/Gershman- Publish.pdf.
80. United States v. Bagley, 473 U.S. 667, 697 (1985) (Marshall, J., dissenting).
81. See, e.g., Susan Bandes, Loyalty to One's Convictions: The Prosecutor and Tunnel Vision, 49 How. L.J. 475, 493 (2006)
82. Keith A. Findley & Michael S. Scott, The Multiple Dimensions of Tunnel Vision in Criminal Cases, 2006 Wis. L. Rev. 291, 296-307
83. See Alafair S. Burke, Improving Prosecutorial Decision Making: Some Lessons of Cognitive Science, 47 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 1587, 1593-94 (2006)
84. See P.C. Wason & P.N. Johnson-Laird, Psychology of Reasoning: Structure and Content 210-17 (1972)
85. See generally Charles G. Lord, Lee Ross & Mark R. Lepper, Biased Assimilation and Attitude Polarization: The Effects of Prior Theories on Subsequently Considered Evidence, 37 J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. 2098, 2099 (1979)
86. See generally Craig A. Anderson, Mark R. Lepper & Lee Ross, Perseverance of Social Theories: The Role of Explanation in the Persistence of Discredited Information, 39 J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. 1037, 1045 (1980)
87. Lee Ross, Mark. R. Lepper & Michael Hubbard, Perseverance in Self-Perception and Social Perception: Biased Attributional Processes in the Debriefing Paradigm, 32 J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. 880, 888 (1975)
88. For a classic example of a study on cognitive dissonance, see Leon Festinger & James M. Carlsmith, Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance, 58 J. Abnormal & Soc. Psychol. 203, 209-10 (1959).
89. John G. Benjafield, Cognition 287-313 (3d ed. 2007)
90. Craig M. McKenzie, Judgment and Decision Making, in The Handbook of Cognition 321 (Koen Lamberts & Robert L. Goldstone eds., 2005)
91. See, e.g., Rachel E. Barkow, Organizational Guidelines for the Prosecutor's Office, 31 Cardozo L. Rev. 2089, 2106 (2010)
92. Daniel S. Medwed, Brady's Bunch of Flaws, 67 Wash. & Lee L. Rev. 1533, 1557-66 (2010)
93. Richard A. Rosen, Disciplinary Sanctions Against Prosecutors for Brady Violations: A Paper Tiger, 65 N.C. L. Rev. 693, 697 (1987)
94. Joseph R. Weeks, No Wrong Without a Remedy: The Effective Enforcement of the Duty of Prosecutors to Disclose Exculpatory Evidence, 22 Okla. City U. L. Rev. 833, 933-34 (1997)
95. Brady, 373 U.S. at 87
96. See Advisory Comm. on Criminal Rules, Minutes of September 27-28, at 8-9 (2010), available at http://www.uscourts.gov/uscourts/RulesAndPolicies/rules/ Minutes/CR09-2010-min.pdf.
97. See Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 24 (1967)
98. United States v. Bagley, 473 U.S. 667, 682 (1985)
99. Under Strickland v. Washington, 466 U.S. 668, 694 (1984)
100. United States v. Jones, 620 F. Supp. 2d 163, 167 (D. Mass. 2009)
101. United States v. Shaygan, 661 F. Supp. 2d 1289, 1292 (S.D. Fla. 2009)
102. Imbler, 424 U.S. at 432 n.34
103. 436 U.S. 658 (1978).
104. 365 U.S. 167, 187 (1961)
105. Monell, 436 U.S. at 657-58.
106. 445 U.S. 622, 638 (1980)
107. City of Newport v. Fact Concerts, 453 U.S. 247 (1981)
108. See Will v. Mich. Dep't of State Police, 491 U.S. 58, 71 (1989)
109. See Pembaur v. City of Cincinnati, 475 U.S. 469, 499-500 (1986) (Powell, J., dissenting).
110. City of St. Louis v. Praprotnik, 485 U.S. 112, 125 n.2 (1988)
111. See Pembaur, 475 U.S. at 498 (Powell, J., dissenting)
112. See, e.g., Indiana ex rel. Anderson v. Brand, 303 U.S. 95, 100, 108-09 (1938)
113. Johnson v. Davis, 582 F.2d 1316, 1317 (4th Cir. 1978)
114. Felder v. Casey, 487 U.S. 131, 134 (1988)
115. Haywood v. Drown, 556 U.S. 729, 740-42 (2009).
116. Bd. of Cnty. Comm'rs v. Brown, 520 U.S. 397, 433 (1997) (Breyer, J., dissenting).
117. See, e.g., Owen, 445 U.S. at 634-38
118. Board of Regents v. Roth, 408 U.S. 564, 569-70 (1972)
119. Compare Hans v. Louisiana, 134 U.S. 1, 20-21 (1890)
120. Lincoln Cnty. v. Luning, 133 U.S. 529, 530 (1890)
121. Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer, 427 U.S. 445, 456 (1976);
122. United States v. Georgia, 546 U.S. 151, 158 (2006)
123. Will v. Mich. Dep't of State Police, 491 U.S. 58, 71 (1989).
124. Cf. Monell, 436 U.S. at 695-701
125. 133 U.S. 529, 530 (1890).
126. See, e.g., Mt. Healthy City Sch. Dist. Bd. of Educ. v. Doyle, 429 U.S. 274, 280-81 (1977) (school boards);
127. Workman v. New York, 179 U.S. 552, 565, 570 (1900) (cities).
128. See Lincoln Cnty., 133 U.S. at 530
129. This view was famously expressed by Chief Judge Dillon in City of Clinton v. Cedar Rapids and Missouri River Railroad Co., 24 Iowa 455, 475 (1868)
130. These remarks were quoted approvingly in Atkin v. Kansas, 191 U.S. 207, 221 (1903), and are widely accepted today.
131. 520 U.S. 781, 783 (1997).
132. See Daryl J. Levinson, Making Government Pay: Markets, Politics, and the Allocation of Constitutional Costs, 67 U. Chi. L. Rev. 345, 347 (2008)
133. See, e.g., Peter H. Schuck, Suing Government: Citizen Remedies for Official Wrongs 100-21 (1983) (advocating enterprise liability);
134. Mark R. Brown, The Demise of Constitutional Prospectivity: New Life for Owen?, 79 Iowa L. Rev. 273, 312 (1994) (disparaging any protection against damages liability even for newly created constitutional rights);
135. Harold S. Lewis, Jr. & Theodore Y. Blumoff, Reshaping Section 1983's Asymmetry, 140 U. Pa. L. Rev. 755, 761-62 (1992) (arguing that entity liability "would work its own indirect but powerful deterrence of individual misbehavior");
136. Cornelia T.L. Pillard, Taking Fiction Seriously: The Strange Results of Public Officials' Individual Liability Under Bivens, 88 Geo. L.J. 65, 66-68 (1999)
137. Perhaps the strongest indications of the Court's fidelity to fault-based constitutional tort liability, despite the contrary pronouncement in Owen v. City of Independence, 445 U.S. 622, 638 (1980), are cases in which the Court has reintroduced fault into doctrine that had seemed to dispense with that requirement.
138. See, e.g., Bd. of Cnty. Comm'rs v. Brown, 520 U.S. 397, 405 (1997)
139. See also Disaggregating Constitutional Torts, 110 Yale L.J. 259 (2000);
140. Compensation for Constitutional Torts: Reflections on the Significance of Fault, 88 Mich. L. Rev. 82 (1989)
141. Damages for Constitutional Violations: The Relation of Risk to Injury in Constitutional Torts, 75 Va. L. Rev. 1461 (1989).
142. Six Unknown Named Agents of Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S. 388, 389 (1971).
143. Wilkie v. Robbins, 551 U.S. 537, 562 (2007)
144. Schweiker v. Chilicky, 487 U.S. 412, 414 (1988)
145. United States v. Stanley, 483 U.S. 669, 683-84 (1987)
146. See John C. Jeffries, Jr. & George A. Rutherglen, Structural Reform Revisited, 95 Calif. L. Rev. 1387, 1391-95 (2007)
147. 209 U.S. 123, 167 (1908).
148. See, e.g., Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe, 521 U.S. 261, 287-88 (1997)
149. Seminole Tribe v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44, 73-74 (1996)
150. Pennhurst State Sch. & Hosp. v. Halderman, 465 U.S. 89, 106 (1984)
151. Monroe v. Pape, 365 U.S. 167, 168-69 (1961).
152. Bivens, 403 U.S. at 397.
153. See Ann Woolhandler & Michael G. Collins, Federal Question Jurisdiction and Justice Holmes, 84 Notre Dame L. Rev. 2151, 2168 (2009)
154. 416 U.S. 232, 240 (1974).
155. See Jerry L. Mashaw, Civil Liability of Government Officers: Property Rights and Official Accountability, 42 Law & Contemp. Probs. 8, 29 (1978).
156. E.g., Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113, 163-64 (1973);
157. Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 483, 495 (1954).
158. Brown, 347 U.S. at 495.
159. Green v. Cnty. Sch. Bd., 391 U.S. 430, 439 (1968)
160. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. of Educ., 402 U.S. 1, 30 (1971).
161. See, e.g., Columbus Bd. of Educ. v. Penick, 443 U.S. 449, 456, 468 (1979)
162. Dayton Bd. of Educ. v. Brinkman, 443 U.S. 526, 541 (1979)
163. Keyes v. Sch. Dist. No. 1, 413 U.S. 189, 213-14 (1973)
164. See Erwin Chemerinsky, Foreword: The Vanishing Constitution, 103 Harv. L. Rev. 43, 96-97 (1989).
165. See generally John C. Jeffries, Jr., What's Wrong with Qualified Immunity?, 62 Fla. L. Rev. 851 (2010)
166. Chaim Saiman, Interpreting Immunity, 7 U. Pa. J. Const. L. 1115, 1115 (2005)
167. See, e.g., Brosseau v. Haugen, 543 U.S. 194, 199, 201 (2004) (per curiam).
168. Elizabeth J. Normal & Jacob E. Daly, Statutory Civil Rights, 53 Mercer L. Rev. 1499, 1556 (2002)
169. See, e.g., Wood v. Strickland, 420 U.S. 308, 322 (1975)
170. 457 U.S. 800 (1982).
171. Crawford-El v. Britton, 523 U.S. 574, 588 (1998).
172. See Mitchell v. Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511, 526 (1985)
173. Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 639 (1987).
174. Harlow, 457 U.S. at 818
175. Anderson, 483 U.S. at 640.
176. See Alan K. Chen, The Burdens of Qualified Immunity: Summary Judgment and the Role of Facts in Constitutional Tort Law, 47 Am. U. L. Rev. 1, 7 (1997) (stating that qualified immunity raises a "mixed question of law and fact");
177. Sheldon Nahmod, The Restructuring of Narrative and Empathy in Section 1983 Cases, 72 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 819, 827 (1997)
178. Teressa E. Ravenell, Hammering in Screws: Why the Court Should Look Beyond Summary Judgment When Resolving § 1983 Qualified Immunity Disputes, 52 Vill. L. Rev. 135, 150-52 (2007)
179. The Court's effort to treat qualified immunity as ordinarily raising only questions of law is trenchantly criticized in Alan K. Chen, The Facts About Qualified Immunity, 55 Emory L.J. 229, 230-33 (2006).
180. Hunter v. Bryant, 502 U.S. 224, 227-28 (1991);
181. A recent example is Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678 (2009)
182. For articles discussing such cases, see, for example, Mark R. Brown, The Fall and Rise of Qualified Immunity: From Hope to Harris, 9 Nev. L.J. 185, 197-202 (2008);
183. Michael S. Catlett, Clearly Not Established: Decisional Law and the Qualified Immunity Doctrine, 47 Ariz. L. Rev. 1031, 1044-50 (2005);
184. See Elrod v. Burns, 427 U.S. 347, 373 (1976).
185. Branti v. Finkel, 445 U.S. 507, 518 (1980).
186. Fields, 566 F.3d at 387
187. Fields, 566 F.3d at 388.
188. Branti, 445 U.S. at 518.
189. 302 F.3d 262 (4th Cir. 2002).
190. 536 U.S. 730, 746 (2002).
191. Gates v. Collier, 501 F.2d 1291, 1305-06 (5th Cir. 1974)
192. 543 U.S. 194, 201 (2004) (per curiam).
193. See Thomas v. Roberts, 261 F.3d 1160, 1170-72 (11th Cir. 2001)
194. 536 U.S. 953 (2002)
195. 323 F.3d 950, 952 (11th Cir. 2003)
196. Vaughan v. Cox, 264 F.3d 1027, 1035-37 (11th Cir. 2001)
197. 536 U.S. 953 (2002)
198. 316 F.3d 1210, 1212 (11th Cir. 2003)
199. Willingham v. Loughnan, 261 F.3d 1178, 1183-88 (11th Cir. 2001)
200. 537 U.S. 801 (2002)
201. 321 F.3d 1299, 1300 (11th Cir. 2003)
202. That is the effect of Harlow, 457 U.S. at 817-18
203. Crawford-El v. Britton, 523 U.S. 574, 588 (1998).
204. See Jennifer E. Laurin, Trawling for Herring: Lessons in Doctrinal Borrowing and Convergence, 111 Colum. L. Rev. 670, 726 (2011)
205. See, e.g., Minneci v. Pollard, 132 S. Ct. 617, 623 (2012)
206. Wilkie v. Robbins, 551 U.S. 537, 541 (2007)
207. Minneci, 132 S. Ct. at 626
208. Bivens, 403 U.S. at 396-97
209. See, e.g., Bush v. Lucas, 462 U.S. 367, 374-80, 390 (1983)
210. See, e.g., Scheuer v. Rhodes, 416 U.S. 232, 240 (1974)
211. See Barbara E. Armacost, Qualified Immunity: Ignorance Excused, 51 Vand. L. Rev. 583, 617-24 (1998) (analyzing qualified immunity in these terms).'
212. See, e.g., Ashcroft v. al-Kidd, 131 S. Ct. 2074, 2083-84 (2011)
213. Nash v. United States, 229 U.S. 373, 377 (1913).
214. Scheuer, 416 U.S. at 240.
215. Hope, 536 U.S. at 733-38.
216. See Toby J. Heytens, The Framework(s) of Legal Change, 97 Cornell L. Rev. 595, 604-06 (2012).
217. Harlow, 457 U.S. at 818.
218. 483 U.S. 635, 640 (1987).
219. 536 U.S. at 748
220. See Vinyard v. Wilson, 311 F.3d 1340, 1351 n.22 (11th Cir. 2002)
221. Marsh v. Butler Cnty., 268 F.3d 1014, 1032 n.10 (11th Cir. 2001)
222. Nash v. United States, 229 U.S. 373, 377 (1913).
223. See, e.g., Foster v. City of Lake Jackson, 28 F.3d 425, 430 (5th Cir. 1994)
224. Doe v. Louisiana, 2 F.3d 1412, 1421 (5th Cir. 1993)
225. 483 U.S. at 647 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
226. 490 U.S. 386, 395 (1989)
227. Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 205 (2001).
228. 543 U.S at 201
229. 261 F.3d 1178, 1185-86 (11th Cir. 2001)
230. 537 U.S. 801 (2002)
231. 321 F.3d 1299, 1304 (11th Cir. 2003).