Rethinking the federal eminent domain power

Yale Law Journal

Volumn 122, Issue 7, 2013, Pages 1738-1825

  Baude, William ^a  

^a STANFORD LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

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EID: 84876561207     PISSN: 00440094     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (496)

1. 91 U.S. 367 (1875).
2. See, e.g., David E. Engdahl, State and Federal Power over Federal Property, 18 Ariz. L. Rev. 283, 297-98 n.54 (1976); Matthew P. Harrington, Regulatory Takings and the Original Understanding of the Takings Clause, 45 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 2053, 2081 n.132 (2004); Leigh Raymond & Sally K. Fairfax, Fragmentation of Public Domain Law and Policy: An Alternative to the "Shift-to-Retention" Thesis, 39 Nat. Resources J. 649, 703-04 (1999); William Michael Treanor, The Origins and Original Significance of the Just Compensation Clause of the Fifth Amendment, 94 Yale L.J. 694, 709 n.78 (1985); D. Zachary Hudson, Note, Eminent Domain Due Process, 119 Yale L.J. 1280, 1293-95 (2010).
3. Matthew P. Harrington, Regulatory Takings and the Original Understanding of the Takings Clause, 45 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 2053, 2081 n.132 (2004)
4. Leigh Raymond & Sally K. Fairfax, Fragmentation of Public Domain Law and Policy: An Alternative to the "Shift-to-Retention" Thesis, 39 Nat. Resources J. 649, 703-04 (1999)
5. William Michael Treanor, The Origins and Original Significance of the Just Compensation Clause of the Fifth Amendment, 94 Yale L.J. 694, 709 n.78 (1985)
6. D. Zachary Hudson, Note, Eminent Domain Due Process, 119 Yale L.J. 1280, 1293-95 (2010).
7. E.g., Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848 (2007); 1 G. Edward White, Law in American History: From the Colonial Years Through the Civil War 262 (2012) (claiming in passing that eminent domain "had been... conceded to the federal government by the Fifth Amendment").
8. Ilya Somin, Eminent Domain Battle over Flight 93 Memorial Continues, Volokh Conspiracy (June 1, 2009, 1:27 PM), http://volokh.com/2009/06/01/eminent-domain-battle-over-flight-93-memorial-continues. Professor Somin informs me that the historical evidence has since induced him to change his mind.
9. Adam S. Grace, From the Lighthouses: How the First Federal Internal Improvement Projects Created Precedent That Broadened the Commerce Clause, Shrunk the Takings Clause, and Affected Early Nineteenth Century Constitutional Debate, 68 Alb. L. Rev. 97, 139-48 (2004).
10. Pollard's Lessee v. Hagan, 44 U.S. (3 How.) 212, 223 (1845).
11. See, e.g., Mitchell N. Berman, Originalism Is Bunk, 84 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1, 10 & n.21 (2009) (describing as nearly universal the view that "the proper originalist object (whatever it may be) should count among the data that interpreters treat as relevant").
12. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
13. U.S. Gen. Accounting Office, CED-80-54, Federal Land Acquisitions by Condemnation-Opportunities To Reduce Delays and Costs 2 (1980).
14. 40 U.S.C. § 3113 (2006) ("An officer of the Federal Government authorized to acquire real estate for the erection of a public building or for other public uses may acquire the real estate for the Government by condemnation, under judicial process, when the officer believes that it is necessary or advantageous to the Government to do so. ").
15. U.S. Gen. Accounting Office, CED-80-14, The Federal Drive To Acquire Private Lands Should Be Reassessed 9 (1979).
16. Telephone Interview with Kim Winn, Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) specialist, Bonneville Power Admin. (Aug. 15, 2012).
17. Letter from Jim Allen, Program Analyst, U.S. Postal Serv., to author (Sept. 24, 2012) (on file with author); Telephone Interview with Janet Bruner, Fish & Wildlife Serv. (Sept. 7, 2012).
18. 132 S. Ct. 2566 (2012).
19. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
20. 91 U.S. 367, 372 (1875).
21. 91 U.S. 367, 372 (1875).
22. Susan Reynolds, Before Eminent Domain: Toward a History of Expropriation of Land for the Common Good 2-3, 94-100 (2010).
23. See William B. Stoebuck, A General Theory of Eminent Domain, 47 Wash. L. Rev. 553, 559-60 (1972).
24. See 1 William Blackstone, Commentaries *139.
25. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 1, 11-12.
26. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
27. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
28. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
29. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
30. 91 U.S. 367, 372 (1875).
31. 160 U.S. 668, 681 (1896).
32. Charles Black, The Forest and the Trees in Constitutional Law, 7 Pace L. Rev. 475, 484 n.22 (1987).
33. Charles Black, The Forest and the Trees in Constitutional Law, 7 Pace L. Rev. 475, 484 n.22 (1987).
34. See, e.g., Act of Apr. 30, 1790 (Crimes Act), 1 Stat. 112 (1790).
35. See Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799, reprinted in 4 The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution 540, 540 (Jonathan Elliot ed., Washington D.C., 2d ed. 1836).
36. Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 898 (1997).
37. Alden v. Maine, 527 U.S. 706, 730-54 (1999).
38. 132 S. Ct. 2566, 2591-93 (2012) (opinion of Roberts, C.J.).
39. Printz, 521 U.S. at 923-35.
40. See, e.g., Seminole Tribe, 517 U.S. at 54.
41. Alden, 527 U.S. at 728.
42. Sebelius, 132 S. Ct. at 2592 (Roberts, C.J.).
43. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
44. As will become apparent, I use the term "great powers" because it is a point of commonality between several important formulations of the idea.
45. Mary Sarah Bilder, The Corporate Origins of Judicial Review, 116 Yale L.J. 502 (2006).
46. Robert G. Natelson, The Legal Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause, in The Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause 52, 60 (Gary Lawson et al. eds., 2010).
47. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
48. U.S. Const. pmbl.
49. The Federalist No. 33, at 158 (Alexander Hamilton) (George W. Carey & James McClellan eds., 2001).
50. Akhil Reed Amar, Constitutional Redundancies and Clarifying Clauses, 33 Val. U. L. Rev. 1, 7-10 (1998) (arguing that the Clause was clarifying, but redundant).
51. John Harrison, Enumerated Federal Power and the Necessary and Proper Clause, 78 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1101, 1122 (2011) (book review) (concluding that on this issue "the authors [in The Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause] make a strong case").
52. John F. Manning, The Necessary and Proper Clause and Its Legal Antecedents, 92 B.U. L. Rev. 1349, 1371 (2012)
53. John F. Manning, The Necessary and Proper Clause and Its Legal Antecedents, 92 B.U. L. Rev. 1349, 1371 (2012)
54. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
55. 2 The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 615-16 (Max Farrand ed., rev. ed. 1966) [hereinafter Records].
56. For early arguments about the relevance of the Convention's proceedings, see H. Jefferson Powell, The Original Understanding of Original Intent, 98 Harv. L. Rev. 885, 914-21 (1985).
57. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
58. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
59. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
60. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
61. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
62. For early arguments about the relevance of the Convention's proceedings, see H. Jefferson Powell, The Original Understanding of Original Intent, 98 Harv. L. Rev. 885, 914-21 (1985).
63. Memorandum from Edmund Randolph, Att'y Gen. of the U.S., to George Washington, President of the U.S. (Feb. 12, 1791).
64. Memorandum from Edmund Randolph, Att'y Gen. of the U.S., to George Washington, President of the U.S. (Feb. 12, 1791).
65. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
66. Akhil Reed Amar, Constitutional Redundancies and Clarifying Clauses, 33 Val. U. L. Rev. 1, 7-10 (1998) (arguing that the Clause was clarifying, but redundant).
67. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
68. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
69. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
70. McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 409 (1819).
71. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
72. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
73. McCulloch, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) at 411.
74. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
75. See John Marshall, A Friend of the Constitution, Alexandria Gazette (D.C.), July 1, 1819.
76. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 1.
77. See McCulloch, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) at 373-74 (argument of counsel for Maryland).
78. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
79. McCulloch, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) at 411.
80. Amanda L. Tyler, Suspension as an Emergency Power, 118 Yale L.J. 600, 664-65 (2009) ("[T]he Clause is framed in the negative and therefore merely implies that [suspension] is permitted [in some cases]. "). So the restrictions on the tax power do not explain why the tax power, unlike the suspension power, is explicitly enumerated.
81. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
82. Akhil Reed Amar, Constitutional Redundancies and Clarifying Clauses, 33 Val. U. L. Rev. 1, 7-10 (1998) (arguing that the Clause was clarifying, but redundant).
83. Michael W. McConnell, Natural Rights and the Ninth Amendment: How Does Lockean Legal Theory Assist in Interpretation?, 5 N.Y.U. J.L. & Liberty 1, 7 (2010) (calling this argument "clearly wrong-even if Hamilton did make it").
84. As George Mason warned. See George Mason, Speech at the Virginia Ratifying Convention (June 14, 1788).
85. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
86. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
87. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
88. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
89. See Mary Sarah Bilder, The Transatlantic Constitution: Colonial Legal Culture and the Empire 31-50 (2004).
90. P.J. Marshall, Parliament and Property Rights in the Late Eighteenth-Century British Empire, in Early Modern Conceptions of Property 530, 531, 539 (John Brewer & Susan Staves eds., 1995).
91. See William B. Stoebuck, A General Theory of Eminent Domain, 47 Wash. L. Rev. 553, 559-60 (1972).
92. Robert G. Natelson, The Legal Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause, in The Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause 52, 60 (Gary Lawson et al. eds., 2010).
93. Robert G. Natelson, The Legal Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause, in The Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause 52, 60 (Gary Lawson et al. eds., 2010).
94. See Forrest McDonald, Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Constitution 13 & n.7 (1985) (acknowledging that "eminent domain" later came to mean condemnation specifically).
95. See William B. Stoebuck, A General Theory of Eminent Domain, 47 Wash. L. Rev. 553, 559-60 (1972).
96. McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 411 (1819).
97. McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 411 (1819).
98. McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 411 (1819).
99. McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 411 (1819).
100. Alexander White, Strictures on the Address and Reasons of Dissent of the Minority of the Pennsylvania Convention, Winchester Va. Gazette (Feb. 22, 1788), reprinted in 8 The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution 401, 404 (John P. Kaminski et al. eds., 1988) [hereinafter Documentary History].
101. [Tench Coxe], A Freeman III, Pa. Gazette (Feb. 6, 1788).
102. Robert G. Natelson, The Enumerated Powers of States, 3 Nev. L.J. 469, 481 (2003) (collecting sources).
103. Akhil Reed Amar, Constitutional Redundancies and Clarifying Clauses, 33 Val. U. L. Rev. 1, 7-10 (1998) (arguing that the Clause was clarifying, but redundant).
104. Akhil Reed Amar, Constitutional Redundancies and Clarifying Clauses, 33 Val. U. L. Rev. 1, 7-10 (1998) (arguing that the Clause was clarifying, but redundant).
105. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8.
106. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
107. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
108. See Francis W. Laurent, Federal Areas Within the Exterior Boundaries of the States, 17 Tenn. L. Rev. 328, 331 (1942) (endorsing this reading).
109. Chesapeake & Ohio Canal Co. v. Balt. & Ohio R.R. Co., 4 G. & J. 1, 3 (Md. 1832); accord Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367, 374 (1875) ("[G]enerally, in statutes as in common use, the word ["purchase"] is employed in a sense not technical, only as meaning acquisition by contract between the parties, without governmental interference. ").
110. See 1 William Blackstone, Commentaries *139.
111. See 1 William Blackstone, Commentaries *139.
112. 2 Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language (New York, S. Converse 1828) (unpaginated entry for "purchase").
113. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8.
114. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
115. Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States § 1219, at 46 (Boston, Hillard, Gray & Co. 1833).
116. See, e.g., Ellen Frankel Paul, Property Rights and Eminent Domain 73 (1987).
117. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
118. 2 The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 615-16 (Max Farrand ed., rev. ed. 1966) [hereinafter Records].
119. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
120. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
121. See, e.g., People v. Godfrey, 17 Johns. 225 (N.Y. 1819).
122. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367, 373 (1875) ("It is true, this power of the Federal government has not heretofore been exercised adversely. ").
123. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
124. Pollard's Lessee v. Hagan, 44 U.S. (3 How.) 212, 222-23 (1845).
125. Act of June 18, 1796, 1796 Mass. Acts 22.
126. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
127. Act of June 12, 1800, 1800 Mass. Acts 109.
128. Act of June 25, 1798, ch. 16, 1798 Mass. Acts 217.
129. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
130. Act of Feb. 3, 1790, ch. 3, 1790 N.Y. Laws 106, 107.
131. Act of Nov. 16, 1790, ch. 321, 1790 N.J. Laws 669.
132. Act of Mar. 1, 1804, 1803 N.J. Laws 352.
133. Act of Feb. 14, 1791, 1791 N.H. Laws 374.
134. See, e.g., Act of Apr. 18, 1795, 1794 Pa. Acts 757, 759 (giving title to the United States to several hundred acres of land at the harbor of Presque Isle for "erect[ing]... and maintain[ing]... forts, magazines, arsenals and dock-yards... thereon").
135. See, e.g., William Michael Treanor, The Original Understanding of the Takings Clause and the Political Process, 95 Colum. L. Rev. 782, 787 ("[R]oad-building [was] the most common occasion in colonial America for the exercise of the eminent domain power. ").
136. See Jeremiah Simeon Young, A Political and Constitutional Study of the Cumberland Road 20-30 (1904).
137. Act of Mar. 29, 1806, ch. 19, 2 Stat. 357, 358-59 (1806).
138. Archer Butler Hulbert, The Cumberland Road 53-54 (1904).
139. Leonard D. White, The Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801-1829, at 485 (1951).
140. Act of Mar. 29, 1806, 1806 Pa. Laws 185, 185-86.
141. Act of Jan. 12, 1807, ch. 93, 1806 Va. Acts 36-37.
142. See Jeremiah Simeon Young, A Political and Constitutional Study of the Cumberland Road 20-30 (1904).
143. See Jeremiah Simeon Young, A Political and Constitutional Study of the Cumberland Road 20-30 (1904).
144. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 17.
145. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
146. Act of Mar. 3, 1809, 2 Stat. 539.
147. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
148. Chesapeake & Ohio Canal Co. v. Union Bank of Georgetown, 5 F. Cas. 570, 572 (C.C.D.D.C. 1830).
149. Act of Apr. 8, 1858, ch. 14, 11 Stat. 263.
150. Robert E. Lee. Gregory C. Sisk, A Primer on the Doctrine of Federal Sovereign Immunity, 58 Okla. L. Rev. 439, 447 (2005).
151. Custiss, 10 U.S. (6 Cranch) at 237.
152. See generally Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier (2005) (exploring the precise mechanisms by which the United States acquired Indian land).
153. See, e.g., Ryerson v. Brown, 35 Mich. 332, 344 (1877) (discussing territorial history).
154. See, e.g., Ryerson v. Brown, 35 Mich. 332, 344 (1877) (discussing territorial history).
155. Adam S. Grace, From the Lighthouses: How the First Federal Internal Improvement Projects Created Precedent That Broadened the Commerce Clause, Shrunk the Takings Clause, and Affected Early Nineteenth Century Constitutional Debate, 68 Alb. L. Rev. 97, 139-48 (2004).
156. 2 The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 615-16 (Max Farrand ed., rev. ed. 1966) [hereinafter Records].
157. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
158. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
159. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
160. Act of Mar. 1794, 1794 R.I. Acts & Resolves 11, 12.
161. 1794 R.I. Acts & Resolves 11.
162. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
163. Thomas Jefferson, To the Senate and House of Representative of the United States, in 1 A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897, at 435, 435 (James D. Richardson ed., Bureau of Nat'l Literature, Inc. [c. 1908]) (1897).
164. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
165. Adam S. Grace, From the Lighthouses: How the First Federal Internal Improvement Projects Created Precedent That Broadened the Commerce Clause, Shrunk the Takings Clause, and Affected Early Nineteenth Century Constitutional Debate, 68 Alb. L. Rev. 97, 139-48 (2004).
166. See 17 Annals of Cong. 175 (1808).
167. Report of Henry Dearborn enclosed in Thomas Jefferson, Fortifications (Jan. 6, 1809).
168. Adam S. Grace, From the Lighthouses: How the First Federal Internal Improvement Projects Created Precedent That Broadened the Commerce Clause, Shrunk the Takings Clause, and Affected Early Nineteenth Century Constitutional Debate, 68 Alb. L. Rev. 97, 139-48 (2004).
169. See, e.g., Gilmer v. Lime Point, 18 Cal. 229, 251 (1861) (collecting earlier sources).
170. Adam S. Grace, From the Lighthouses: How the First Federal Internal Improvement Projects Created Precedent That Broadened the Commerce Clause, Shrunk the Takings Clause, and Affected Early Nineteenth Century Constitutional Debate, 68 Alb. L. Rev. 97, 139-48 (2004).
171. See, e.g., Bank of the U.S. v. Planters' Bank of Ga., 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 904 (1824) (suit by federal entity upon nonfederal claim).
172. See Jeremiah Simeon Young, A Political and Constitutional Study of the Cumberland Road 20-30 (1904).
173. 31 Annals of Cong. 1169 (1818).
174. 31 Annals of Cong. 1169 (1818).
175. 31 Annals of Cong. 1169 (1818).
176. 31 Annals of Cong. 1169 (1818).
177. See Jeremiah Simeon Young, A Political and Constitutional Study of the Cumberland Road 20-30 (1904).
178. Leonard D. White, The Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801-1829, at 485 (1951).
179. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
180. James Monroe, Views of the President of the United States on the Subject of Internal Improvements (May 4, 1822), in 2 A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents 713, 736-37 (James D. Richardson ed., 1897) [hereinafter Compilation].
181. See Jeremiah Simeon Young, A Political and Constitutional Study of the Cumberland Road 20-30 (1904).
182. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
183. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
184. Adam S. Grace, From the Lighthouses: How the First Federal Internal Improvement Projects Created Precedent That Broadened the Commerce Clause, Shrunk the Takings Clause, and Affected Early Nineteenth Century Constitutional Debate, 68 Alb. L. Rev. 97, 139-48 (2004).
185. See 40 Annals of Cong. 620 (1823) ("A gentleman, his name, I think, was Good.... "); H.R. Rep. No. 19-140, at 2-3 (1826) (detailing Good's petitions).
186. H.R. Rep. No. 19-140, at 3 ("The petitioner was duly notified of the time and place of the meeting of these persons thus appointed, and declined to attend.... ").
187. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
188. H.R. Rep. No. 20-90 (1828).
189. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
190. H.R. Rep. No. 20-90 (emphasis added).
191. H.R. Rep. No. 20-90 (emphasis added).
192. Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States § 1219, at 46 (Boston, Hillard, Gray & Co. 1833).
193. Dickey v. Maysville, Wash., Paris & Lexington Tpk. Rd. Co., 37 Ky. (7 Dana) 113, 113-14 (1838).
194. Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States § 1219, at 46 (Boston, Hillard, Gray & Co. 1833).
195. For background on the land, see City of Mobile v. Emanuel, 42 U.S. (1 How.) 95 (1843).
196. For attempts to summarize the extensive litigation, see 5 Carl B. Swisher, History of the Supreme Court of the United States: The Taney Period 1836-64, at 751-53 (Paul A. Freund ed., 1974)
197. James L. Huffman, Speaking of Inconvenient Truths-A History of the Public Trust Doctrine, 18 Duke Envtl. L. & Pol'y F. 1, 72-73 (2007)
198. Keith E. Whittington, Judicial Review of Congress Before the Civil War, 97 Geo. L.J. 1257, 1312-15 (2009).
199. Pollard's Lessee v. Hagan, 44 U.S. (3 How.) 212, 222 (1845).
200. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
201. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
202. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
203. Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States § 1219, at 46 (Boston, Hillard, Gray & Co. 1833).
204. Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States § 1219, at 46 (Boston, Hillard, Gray & Co. 1833).
205. See Pollard's Lessee, 44 U.S. (3 How.) at 230-31 (Catron, J., dissenting).
206. For attempts to summarize the extensive litigation, see 5 Carl B. Swisher, History of the Supreme Court of the United States: The Taney Period 1836-64, at 751-53 (Paul A. Freund ed., 1974)
207. 50 U.S. (9 How.) 471 (1850).
208. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
209. David M. Gold, Redfield, Railroads, and the Roots of "Laissez-Faire Constitutionalism, " 27 Am. J. Legal Hist. 254, 257 (1983).
210. 1 Isaac F. Redfield, A Practical Treatise upon the Law of Railways 113 (Boston, Little Brown & Co. 1857).
211. See generally Harry C. Ways, The Washington Aqueduct, 1852-1992 [1996] (providing background on the need for and construction of the aqueduct).
212. Act of Aug. 31, 1852, ch. 108, 10 Stat. 76, 92.
213. See generally Harry C. Ways, The Washington Aqueduct, 1852-1992 [1996] (providing background on the need for and construction of the aqueduct).
214. Act of May 3, 1853, 1853 Md. Laws 208, 209.
215. See Washington Aqueduct, 7 Op. Att'y Gen. 114, 118, 122 (1855).
216. Reddall v. Bryan, 14 Md. 444, 451 (1859) (argument of appellant).
217. Reddall v. Bryan, 14 Md. 444, 451 (1859) (argument of appellant).
218. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
219. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
220. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
221. Reddall v. Bryan, 65 U.S. (24 How.) 420, 422-23 (1860) (noting both that the appeal was interlocutory and that it lacked any claim of federal right).
222. Act of Feb. 14, 1859, 1859 Cal. Stat. 26.
223. Gilmer v. Lime Point, 18 Cal. 229, 252 (1861).
224. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
225. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
226. See Eminent Domain-State Jurisdiction, 8 Op. Att'y Gen. 30, 31 (1856).
227. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
228. See United States v. Dumplin Island, 1 Barb. 24 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1847) (citing Act of May 5, 1847, 1847 Pa. Laws 189).
229. Eminent Domain of Texas, 8 Op. Att'y Gen. 333, 334 (1857).
230. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
231. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
232. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367, 373 (1875).
233. Paxton Blair, Federal Condemnation Proceedings and the Seventh Amendment, 41 Harv. L. Rev. 29, 37 (1927).
234. See Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 2228 (1858) (report of Sen. Judah P. Benjamin).
235. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
236. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
237. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
238. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
239. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
240. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
241. Cong. Globe, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1791-92 (1860).
242. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
243. Senators Wigfall, Mason, and Davis all left Congress in the exodus of 1861. Richard D. Hupman, Senate Election, Expulsion and Censure Cases from 1789 to 1960, S. Doc. No. 87-71, at 27-28 (1962).
244. James W. Ely, Jr., Railroads and American Law 35 (2001).
245. George Rogers Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, 1815-1860, at 89 (1951).
246. James W. Ely, Jr., Railroads and American Law 35 (2001).
247. Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 2d Sess. 1889 (1862).
248. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
249. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
250. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
251. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
252. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
253. Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 2d Sess. 2679 (1862).
254. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
255. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
256. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
257. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
258. Act of July 1, 1862, 12 Stat. 489.
259. Act of July 11, 1862, ch. 148, 12 Stat. 537.
260. An Appeal to Congress by the Citizens of Rock Island and Moline, Illinois, and Davenport, Iowa: In Favor of a National Armory on the Site of Fort Armstrong, on the Island of Rock Island, in the State of Illinois 5 (Rock Island, Ill., Daily Argus Book & Job Printing Office 1861) [hereinafter Appeal to Congress].
261. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
262. Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States § 1219, at 46 (Boston, Hillard, Gray & Co. 1833).
263. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1477-78 (1864).
264. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
265. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
266. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
267. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
268. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1478 (1864).
269. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
270. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
271. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
272. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
273. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1478-79 (1864).
274. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
275. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
276. Act of Apr. 19, 1864, ch. 60, 13 Stat. 50.
277. The following March, Secretary Stanton reported that the federal government had already secured the land in Rock Island, and that construction was "in progress. " 1865 Sec'y War Annual Rep. 6. While Stanton did not specify whether the land had been condemned or purchased, given that speed and the extensive appeals process provided in the condemnation bill, Act of Apr. 19, 1864 §§ 5, 7, 13 Stat. at 51-52, purchase may be more likely.
278. In 1864 there was some confusion about whether the original charter really had been limited to the territories, evidently because it was unclear exactly where the Platte River was. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2378-79 (1864).
279. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
280. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
281. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
282. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
283. See Act of July 2, 1864, ch. 216, 13 Stat. 356.
284. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2664 (1864) (statement of Sen. James McDougall).
285. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 2664 (1864) (statement of Sen. James McDougall).
286. Act of July 2, 1864, ch. 217, § 7, 13 Stat. 365, 369-70.
287. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
288. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
289. Act of July 27, 1866, ch. 278, 14 Stat. 292.
290. Act of Feb. 22, 1867, ch. 61, § 5, 14 Stat. 399, 400.
291. See Nat'l Cemetery at Grafton, 14 Op. Att'y Gen. 27 (1872) (noting that land was appraised by a district court, though the "appraisal seemed to the War Department exorbitant" and was under dispute).
292. Act of Feb. 22, 1867, ch. 184, 15 Stat. 124 (1868).
293. Act of Feb. 22, 1867, ch. 184, 15 Stat. 124 (1868).
294. People ex rel. Trombley v. Humphrey, 23 Mich. 471, 481 (1871).
295. James W. Ely, Jr., Railroads and American Law 35 (2001).
296. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
297. Act of Mar. 12, 1872, ch. 45, 17 Stat. 39, 39.
298. Act of Apr. 20, 1872, § 4, 1872 Ohio Laws 81, 82.
299. Act of Apr. 23, 1872, 1872 Ohio Laws 88.
300. Act of June 10, 1872, ch. 415, 17 Stat. 347, 353.
301. Act of Feb. 15, 1873, § 1, 1873 Ohio Laws 36, 36.
302. Transcript of Record at 1.
303. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
304. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
305. Kohl, 91 U.S. 367.
306. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
307. Brief for the Petitioner at 13.
308. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
309. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
310. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
311. United States v. Inlots, 26 F. Cas. 482, 483 (S.D. Ohio 1873).
312. United States v. Inlots, 26 F. Cas. 482, 483 (S.D. Ohio 1873).
313. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
314. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
315. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
316. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
317. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
318. Cf. Henry Edmund Mills, A Treatise upon the Law of Eminent Domain 363 (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas 1879) (noting the inconsistency).
319. Michael H. Schill, Intergovernmental Takings and Just Compensation: A Question of Federalism, 137 U. Pa. L. Rev. 829, 833 n.10 (1989) (same).
320. See Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law: 1780-1860, at 63-66 (1977).
321. James W. Ely, Jr., Railroads and American Law 35 (2001).
322. Gardner v. Trustees of Newburgh, 2 Johns. Ch. 162, 168 (N.Y. Ch. 1816) (Kent, Ch.) ("[P]rovision for compensation is an indispensable attendant.... ").
323. J.A.C. Grant, The "Higher Law" Background of the Law of Eminent Domain, 6 Wis. L. Rev. 67, 71-81 (1930) (collecting sources).
324. J.A.C. Grant, The "Higher Law" Background of the Law of Eminent Domain, 6 Wis. L. Rev. 67, 71-81 (1930) (collecting sources).
325. See generally Harry C. Ways, The Washington Aqueduct, 1852-1992 [1996] (providing background on the need for and construction of the aqueduct).
326. See generally Harry C. Ways, The Washington Aqueduct, 1852-1992 [1996] (providing background on the need for and construction of the aqueduct).
327. 91 U.S. 367, 372-73 (1875).
328. U.S. Const. amend. V.
329. See Barron v. Mayor of Balt., 32 U.S. 243, 250-51 (1833) (holding that the Takings Clause is inapplicable to the states).
330. See Akhil Reed Amar, The Bill of Rights: Creation and Reconstruction 145-56 (1998) (discussing the "Barron contrarians").
331. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
332. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
333. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
334. As George Mason warned. See George Mason, Speech at the Virginia Ratifying Convention (June 14, 1788).
335. I am assuming, as most then assumed, that the Takings Clause applied in such territories. Early on, Congress generally extended the Bill of Rights to the territories by statute, creating an ambiguity about whether statutory extension was required. See Christina Duffy Burnett, Untied States: American Expansion and Territorial Deannexation, 72 U. Chi. L. Rev. 797, 824-27 (2005).
336. See, e.g., William Michael Treanor, The Original Understanding of the Takings Clause and the Political Process, 95 Colum. L. Rev. 782, 787 ("[R]oad-building [was] the most common occasion in colonial America for the exercise of the eminent domain power. ").
337. Ryan C. Williams, The One and Only Substantive Due Process Clause, 120 Yale L.J. 408, 446 n.156 (2010).
338. See Stephen Stohler, Slavery and the Political Origins of the Fifth Amendment's Takings Clause (Oct. 6, 2010) (unpublished manuscript), http://www.sas.upenn.edu/dcc /workshops/documents/StohlerDCC.pdf.
339. Compensated Emancipation Act, ch. 54, § 4, 12 Stat. 376, 377 (1862).
340. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
341. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
342. See, e.g., William Michael Treanor, The Original Understanding of the Takings Clause and the Political Process, 95 Colum. L. Rev. 782, 787 ("[R]oad-building [was] the most common occasion in colonial America for the exercise of the eminent domain power. ").
343. See, e.g., William Michael Treanor, The Original Understanding of the Takings Clause and the Political Process, 95 Colum. L. Rev. 782, 787 ("[R]oad-building [was] the most common occasion in colonial America for the exercise of the eminent domain power. ").
344. Mass. Const. of 1780, art. X.
345. Nathan S. Chapman & Michael W. McConnell, Due Process as Separation of Powers, 121 Yale L.J. 1672, 1759-62 (2012).
346. See, e.g., William Michael Treanor, The Original Understanding of the Takings Clause and the Political Process, 95 Colum. L. Rev. 782, 787 ("[R]oad-building [was] the most common occasion in colonial America for the exercise of the eminent domain power. ").
347. Joseph L. Sax, Takings and the Police Power, 74 Yale L.J. 36, 58 (1964).
348. Joseph L. Sax, Takings and the Police Power, 74 Yale L.J. 36, 58 (1964).
349. The Address and Reasons of Dissent of the Minority of the Convention of the State of Pennsylvania to Their Constituents (Dec. 18, 1787).
350. Virginia Convention Amendments (1788).
351. Recommendatory Amendments, Poughkeepsie Country J., Aug. 12, 1788.
352. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
353. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
354. See, e.g., William Michael Treanor, The Original Understanding of the Takings Clause and the Political Process, 95 Colum. L. Rev. 782, 787 ("[R]oad-building [was] the most common occasion in colonial America for the exercise of the eminent domain power. ").
355. Akhil Reed Amar, Constitutional Redundancies and Clarifying Clauses, 33 Val. U. L. Rev. 1, 7-10 (1998) (arguing that the Clause was clarifying, but redundant).
356. Thomas B. McAffee, The Original Meaning of the Ninth Amendment, 90 Colum. L. Rev. 1215, 1248-54 (1990).
357. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
358. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
359. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
360. U.S. Const. amend. IX.
361. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
362. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
363. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
364. See Michael C. Dorf, The Aspirational Constitution, 77 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1631, 1650-51 (2009) (noting fears that structural protection for rights would be inadequate).
365. See Richard H. Thaler & Will Tucker, Smarter Information, Smarter Consumers, Harv. Bus. Rev., Jan.-Feb. 2013, http://hbr.org/2013/01/smarter-information-smarter-consumers/ar/1.
366. See William B. Stoebuck, A General Theory of Eminent Domain, 47 Wash. L. Rev. 553, 559-60 (1972).
367. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
368. Christopher G. Tiedeman, Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States 370-72 (Hein Online 2001) (1886).
369. See, e.g., Robert C. Ellickson, Property in Land, 102 Yale L.J. 1315, 1353-54 (1993).
370. Carol M. Rose, Takings, Federalism, Norms, 105 Yale L.J. 1121, 1143 (1996)
371. But see Eduardo Moisés Peñalver, Is Land Special?, 31 Ecology L.Q. 227 (2004) (suggesting not).
372. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
373. See Andrew Kent, The Constitution and the Laws of War During the Civil War, 85 Notre Dame L. Rev. 1839, 1846-47 (2010).
374. Stephen C. Neff, Justice in Blue and Gray: A Legal History of the Civil War 4-5, 19-20, 113 (2010).
375. United States v. Russell, 80 U.S. 623, 628 (1871).
376. Cox v. Cummings, 33 Ga. 549, 553-54 (1863).
377. 91 U.S. 367, 371-72 (1875).
378. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
379. Cherokee Nation v. S. Kan. Ry. Co., 135 U.S. 641, 656 (1890).
380. United States v. Jones, 109 U.S. 513, 518 (1883).
381. U.S. Const. art. I, § 1.
382. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
383. See, e.g., Alexander Hamilton, Pacificus No. 1, Gazette of the United States (Phila.) (June 29, 1793), in 15 Papers of Alexander Hamilton 33, 39 (Harold C. Syrett ed., 1969) (arguing for inherent presidential authority by relying on the absence of "herein granted" from Article II).
384. U.S. Const. amend. X.
385. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
386. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
387. Sarah H. Cleveland, Powers Inherent in Sovereignty: Indians, Aliens, Territories, and the Nineteenth Century Origins of Plenary Power over Foreign Affairs, 81 Tex. L. Rev. 1, 250 (2002).
388. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
389. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
390. 79 U.S. (12 Wall.) 457 (1870).
391. Robert G. Natelson, Paper Money and the Original Understanding of the Coinage Clause, 31 Harv. J. L. & Pub. Pol'y 1017, 1061-79 (2008).
392. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
393. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
394. 79 U.S. (12 Wall.) at 535.
395. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
396. Peter L. Markowitz, Straddling the Civil-Criminal Divide: A Bifurcated Approach to Understanding the Nature of Immigration Removal Proceedings, 43 Harv. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev. 289, 310 n.118 (2008) (suggesting the same relationship in immigration law).
397. E.g., Larry D. Kramer, Putting the Politics Back into the Political Safeguards of Federalism, 100 Colum. L. Rev. 215, 287-93 (2000).
398. Sarah H. Cleveland, Powers Inherent in Sovereignty: Indians, Aliens, Territories, and the Nineteenth Century Origins of Plenary Power over Foreign Affairs, 81 Tex. L. Rev. 1, 250 (2002).
399. U.S. Const. art. I, § 10, cl. 1.
400. Robert G. Natelson, The Legal Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause, in The Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause 52, 60 (Gary Lawson et al. eds., 2010).
401. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
402. See generally Caleb Nelson, Originalism and Interpretive Conventions, 70 U. Chi. L. Rev. 519, 525-29 (2003) (noting that Madison's contemporaries "made repeated references to the role of practice in 'fixing' the Constitution's meaning").
403. Robert G. Natelson, The Legal Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause, in The Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause 52, 60 (Gary Lawson et al. eds., 2010).
404. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
405. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
406. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
407. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
408. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
409. U.S. Const. art. I, § 10.
410. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
411. Ableman v. Booth, 62 U.S. (21 How.) 506, 514-17 (1859).
412. 65 U.S. (24 How.) 66, 106-08 (1860).
413. 80 U.S. (13 Wall.) 397, 411-12 (1871).
414. See, e.g., Edward A. Hartnett, The Constitutional Puzzle of Habeas Corpus, 46 B.C. L. Rev. 251, 265 (2005) ("There is no shortage of scholars who reject Tarble's Case or who seek to cabin it. ").
415. Daniel J. Meltzer, Congress, Courts, and Constitutional Remedies, 86 Geo. L.J. 2537, 2567 (1998)
416. See Stephen I. Vladeck, The Suspension Clause as a Structural Right, 62 U. Miami L. Rev. 275, 279 (2008).
417. Branstad, 483 U.S. at 230.
418. For further discussion of separate spheres sovereignty as a post-Civil War construction, see Duncan Kennedy, The Rise & Fall of Classical Legal Thought 31-40 (Beard Books 2006) (1975).
419. For early arguments about the relevance of the Convention's proceedings, see H. Jefferson Powell, The Original Understanding of Original Intent, 98 Harv. L. Rev. 885, 914-21 (1985).
420. William Baude, Signing Unconstitutional Laws, 86 Ind. L.J. 303, 305 (2011).
421. McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 411 (1819).
422. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 6, 10.
423. See Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799, reprinted in 4 The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution 540, 540 (Jonathan Elliot ed., Washington D.C., 2d ed. 1836).
424. For more criticism along these lines, see National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, 132 S. Ct. 2566, 2627-28 (2012) (Ginsburg, J., concurring in part, concurring in the judgment in part, and dissenting in part).
425. Andrew Koppelman, "Necessary, " "Proper, " and Health Care Reform, in The Health Care Case: The Supreme Court's Decision and Its Implications (Nathaniel Persily et al. eds., forthcoming 2013) (manuscript at 8-12), http://ssrn.com/abstract=2010192.
426. The standard reference is Paul Brest, The Conscientious Legislator's Guide to Constitutional Interpretation, 27 Stan. L. Rev. 585 (1975).
427. I bracket the suggestion that the Necessary and Proper Clause and the great powers doctrine were themselves intended to evolve with the times, see Wesley J. Campbell, Commandeering and Constitutional Change, 122 Yale L.J. 1104, 1179 (2013), although this is possible in principle.
428. Jack M. Balkin, Living Originalism 3-34, 277-319 (2011). I will note that it is more difficult to derive a determinate meaning of the Clause under such a theory, and liquidation may prove the more viable alternative. Moreover, the arguments supporting a broad and evolving concept of necessity may actually bolster the case for a more fixed concept of propriety through the "great powers" doctrine.
429. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
430. See, e.g., James Madison, Preface to Debates in the Convention of 1787.
431. See generally Caleb Nelson, Originalism and Interpretive Conventions, 70 U. Chi. L. Rev. 519, 525-29 (2003) (noting that Madison's contemporaries "made repeated references to the role of practice in 'fixing' the Constitution's meaning").
432. John F. Manning, The Necessary and Proper Clause and Its Legal Antecedents, 92 B.U. L. Rev. 1349, 1371 (2012)
433. See Richard A. Primus, The Riddle of Hiram Revels, 119 Harv. L. Rev. 1681, 1709 (2006) ("It would be extravagant to claim that events of the 1860s erased all of that previous system. Nobody thinks that the Civil War and Reconstruction cast doubt on whether Presidents should serve four-year terms. ").
434. see also Harold M. Hyman, A More Perfect Union: The Impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on the Constitution 546 (1973) ("Despite the persistent contrary tradition that a vast centralization resulted from the War and Reconstruction, it is difficult today to substantiate the thesis. ").
435. President Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address (Mar. 4, 1861), in Abraham Lincoln: Speeches and Writings 1859-1865, at 215, 218 (Don E. Fehrenbacher ed., 1989).
436. See John Harrison, The Lawfulness of the Reconstruction Amendments, 68 U. Chi. L. Rev. 375, 390-93 (2001) (canvassing views).
437. Akhil Reed Amar, America's Unwritten Constitution: The Precedents and Principles We Live By 79-94 (2012).
438. Akhil Reed Amar, America's Unwritten Constitution: The Precedents and Principles We Live By 79-94 (2012).
439. See Richard A. Primus, The Riddle of Hiram Revels, 119 Harv. L. Rev. 1681, 1709 (2006) ("It would be extravagant to claim that events of the 1860s erased all of that previous system. Nobody thinks that the Civil War and Reconstruction cast doubt on whether Presidents should serve four-year terms. ").
440. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
441. On the implications of eminent domain for racial minorities, see, for example, Brief for NAACP et al. as Amici Curiae Supporting Petitioners, Kelo v. City of New London, 545 U.S. 469 (2005) (No. 04-108).
442. Bruce Ackerman, We The People: Transformations 186-252 (1998).
443. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
444. See Brian Z. Tamanaha, Understanding Legal Realism, 87 Tex. L. Rev. 731, 746 (2009).
445. State Land Bd. v. Corvallis Sand & Gravel Co., 429 U.S. 363, 381 (1977). The same could be said of federal eminent domain.
446. Kohl v. United States, 91 U.S. 367 (1875) (No. 144).
447. See Jeremiah Simeon Young, A Political and Constitutional Study of the Cumberland Road 20-30 (1904).
448. John F. Manning, The Necessary and Proper Clause and Its Legal Antecedents, 92 B.U. L. Rev. 1349, 1371 (2012)
449. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
450. See, e.g., Mitchell N. Berman, Originalism Is Bunk, 84 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1, 10 & n.21 (2009) (describing as nearly universal the view that "the proper originalist object (whatever it may be) should count among the data that interpreters treat as relevant").
451. See, e.g., Mitchell N. Berman, Originalism Is Bunk, 84 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1, 10 & n.21 (2009) (describing as nearly universal the view that "the proper originalist object (whatever it may be) should count among the data that interpreters treat as relevant").
452. Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 898, 923-24 (1997) (quoting The Federalist No. 33 (Alexander Hamilton) (alterations in Printz).
453. Alden v. Maine, 527 U.S. 706, 732-33 (1999) (quoting this passage from Printz).
454. See generally Caleb Nelson, Originalism and Interpretive Conventions, 70 U. Chi. L. Rev. 519, 525-29 (2003) (noting that Madison's contemporaries "made repeated references to the role of practice in 'fixing' the Constitution's meaning").
455. I bracket the suggestion that the Necessary and Proper Clause and the great powers doctrine were themselves intended to evolve with the times, see Wesley J. Campbell, Commandeering and Constitutional Change, 122 Yale L.J. 1104, 1179 (2013), although this is possible in principle.
456. Robert G. Natelson, The Legal Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause, in The Origins of the Necessary and Proper Clause 52, 60 (Gary Lawson et al. eds., 2010).
457. 132 S. Ct. at 2591 (Roberts, C.J.).
458. It is also possible, as the government and four Justices argued, that the Commerce Clause authorizes the mandate by itself, without need to reference implied powers. Sebelius, 132 S. Ct. at 2615-29 (Ginsburg, J., concurring in part, concurring in the judgment in part, and dissenting in part).
459. Andrew Koppelman, "Necessary, " "Proper, " and Health Care Reform, in The Health Care Case: The Supreme Court's Decision and Its Implications (Nathaniel Persily et al. eds., forthcoming 2013) (manuscript at 8-12), http://ssrn.com/abstract=2010192.
460. See Sebelius, 132 S. Ct. at 2587 n.5 (Roberts, C.J.).
461. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
462. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
463. Selective Draft Law Cases, 245 U.S. 366, 377 (1918).
464. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
465. A version of this argument was made by Harrop A. Freeman, The Constitutionality of Direct Federal Military Conscription, 46 Ind. L.J. 333 (1971).
466. See Robert Leider, Federalism and the Military Power of the United States (2012) (unpublished manuscript) (on file with author)
467. Andrew Prout, The Constitution's Drafting Power (June 11, 2012) (unpublished manuscript) (on file with author).
468. See Robert Leider, Federalism and the Military Power of the United States (2012) (unpublished manuscript) (on file with author)
469. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
470. Daniel Webster, The Conscription Bill (Dec. 9, 1814).
471. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
472. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
473. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
474. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 15.
475. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
476. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
477. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
478. Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. 238, 248 (1863) (emphasis added).
479. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
480. Akhil Reed Amar, America's Unwritten Constitution: The Precedents and Principles We Live By 79-94 (2012).
481. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
482. See Gary Lawson & Patricia B. Granger, The "Proper" Scope of Federal Power: A Jurisdictional Interpretation of the Sweeping Clause, 43 Duke L.J. 267, 318 (1993) (collecting public statements from Edmund Randolph, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, James Iredell, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson).
483. 2 The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 615-16 (Max Farrand ed., rev. ed. 1966) [hereinafter Records].
484. See Gary Lawson & Patricia B. Granger, The "Proper" Scope of Federal Power: A Jurisdictional Interpretation of the Sweeping Clause, 43 Duke L.J. 267, 318 (1993) (collecting public statements from Edmund Randolph, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, James Iredell, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson).
485. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
486. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801, at 225 n.150 (1997) (discussing the controversy over federal road construction).
487. As George Mason warned. See George Mason, Speech at the Virginia Ratifying Convention (June 14, 1788).
488. See Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799, reprinted in 4 The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution 540, 540 (Jonathan Elliot ed., Washington D.C., 2d ed. 1836).
489. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
490. Heather K. Gerken, Our Federalism(s), 53 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 1549, 1562 (2012).
491. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
492. Michael S. Greve, Against Cooperative Federalism, 70 Miss. L.J. 557, 576 (2000).
493. Michael S. Greve, The Upside-Down Constitution 250-53 (2012). My point is limited to the historical claims that frame that critique.
494. I will expand these points in William Baude, Original Remedies (work in progress on file with author).
495. Larry Kramer, Fidelity to History-and Through It, 65 Fordham L. Rev. 1627, 1654-55 (1997).
496. See Akhil Reed Amar, Of Sovereignty and Federalism, 96 Yale L.J. 1425, 1506-10 (1987).