A rat in the labyrinth of anorexia nervosa: Contributions of the activity-based anorexia rodent model to the understanding of anorexia nervosa

International Journal of Eating Disorders

Volumn 46, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 289-301

  Gutierrez, Emilio ^a,b  

^a Campus Universitario Sur   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA   (Spain)

Author keywords

activity based anorexia; animal models; food restriction; hyperactivity

Indexed keywords

2 DIPROPYLAMINO 8 HYDROXYTETRALIN; ALPHA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; CHLORDIAZEPOXIDE; CHLORPROMAZINE; DOPAMINE; FENFLURAMINE; FLUOXETINE; FLUPENTIXOL; FLUVOXAMINE; OLANZAPINE; PIMOZIDE; SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN 2C AGONIST;

ACTIVITY BASED ANOREXIA; ANOREXIA NERVOSA; DEATH; DIET RESTRICTION; DISEASE COURSE; DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM; DRUG MEGADOSE; ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE; FEEDING; FOOD INTAKE; GENDER; HYPERACTIVITY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOPHARMACOTHERAPY; REVIEW; REWARD; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; STARVATION; STOMACH ULCER; STRESS ULCER; SURVIVAL RATE; SYMPTOM; TREADMILL EXERCISE; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

ANIMALS; ANOREXIA NERVOSA; BEHAVIOR, ANIMAL; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; FOOD DEPRIVATION; MOTOR ACTIVITY; RATS;

EID: 84876016610     PISSN: 02763478     EISSN: 1098108X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/eat.22095     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Stewart CC,. Variations in daily activity produced by alcohol and by changes in barometric pressure and diet, with a description of recording methods. Am J Physiol 1898; 1: 40-56.
2. Sherwin CM,. Voluntary wheel running: A review and novel interpretation. Anim Behav; 1998; 56: 11-27.
3. Premack D,;Premack AJ,. Increased eating in rats deprived of running. J Exp Anal Behav; 1963; 6: 209-212.
4. Lattanzio SB, Eikelboom R,. Wheel access duration in rats. I. Effects on feeding and running. Behav Neurosci 2003; 117: 496-504.
5. Richter CP,. A behavioristic study of the activity of the rat. J Comp Psychol Monogr 1922; 1: 1-55.
6. Finger FW,. The effects of food deprivation and subsequent satiation upon general activity in the rat. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1951; 44: 557-564.
7. Hall JF, Hanford PV,. Activity as a function of a restricted feeding schedule. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1954; 47: 362-363.
8. Reid LS, Finger FW,. The rat's adjustment to 23-hour food-deprivation cycles. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1955; 48: 110-113.
9. Routtenberg A, Lindy J,. Effects of the availability of rewarding septal and hypothalamic stimulation on bar-pressing for food under conditions of deprivation. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1965; 60: 158-161.
10. Routtenberg A, Kuznesof AA,. Self-starvation of rats living in activity wheels on a restricted feeding schedule. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1967; 64: 414-421.
11. Epling WF, Pierce WD, Stefan LA,. Schedule-induced self-starvation. In, Bradshaw CM, Szabadi E, Lowe CF, editors. Quantification of Steady-State Operant Behaviour. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, 1981, pp. 393-396.
12. Epling WF, Pierce WD,. Solving the Anorexia Puzzle. A Scientific Approach. Toronto: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers, 1991.
13. Epling WF, Pierce WD,. Activity Anorexia. Theory, Research, and Treatment. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996.
14. Pierce WD, Epling WF,. Activity Anorexia. An interplay between basic and applied behavior analysis. The Behav Analyst 1994; 17: 7-23.
15. Cheney CD, Epling WF,. Running wheel activity and self starvation in the white rat. 1968. Unpublished manuscript. In, Pierce WD, Cheney CD, editors. Behavior Analysis and Learning. New Jersey: Mahwah, LEA, 2004.
16. Epling WF, Pierce WD,. Activity-based anorexia: A biobehavioral perspective. Int J Eat Disord 1988; 7: 475-485.
17. Epling WF, Pierce WD, Stefan L,. A theory of activity-based anorexia. Int J Eat Disord 1983; 3: 27-46.
18. Pierce WD,., Epling WF,. Activity anorexia: An animal model and theory of human self- starvation. In, Boulton A, Baker G, Martin-Iverson M, editors. Neuromethods, Vol 19, Animal Models in Psychiatry, II. Clifton, NJ: The Humana Press, 1991. pp. 267-311.
19. Pierce WD, Epling WF, Boer DP,. Deprivation and satiation: The interrelations between food and wheel running. J Exp Anal Behav 1986; 46: 199-210.
20. Garner DM, Garfinkel PE, Rockert W, Olmsted MP,. A prospective study of eating disturbances in the ballet. Psychother Psychosom 1987; 48: 170-175.
21. Lasègue C,. De l'anorexie hystérique. Archiv Gen Méd 1873; 21: 385-403.
22. Janet P,. The major symptoms of hysteria. In, Kaufman MR, Heiman M, editors. Evolution of Psychosomatic Concepts. New York: International University Press, 1964. pp. 156-160.
23. Gutierrez E, Vazquez R, Beumont PJV,. Do people with anorexia nervosa use sauna baths? A reconsideration of heat-treatment in anorexia nervosa. Eat Behav 2002; 3: 133-142
24. Gull W,. Anorexia nervosa (apepsia hysterica, anorexia hysterica). Trans Clin Soc London 1874; 7: 22-28.
25. Kron L, Katz JL, Gorzynski G, Weiner H,. Hyperactivity in anorexia nervosa: A fundamental clinical feature. Comp Psychiat 1978; 19: 433-440.
26. Casper RC,. The 'drive for activity' and "restlessness" in anorexia nervosa: Potential pathways. J Affect Disord 2006; 92: 99-107
27. Davis CTM, Katzman DK, Kirsh C,. Compulsive pshysical activity in adolescents with anorexia nervosa. A psychobehabioral spiral of pathology. J Nerv Ment Dis 1999; 187: 336-342.
28. Davis CTM, Blackmore E, Katzman DK, Fox J,. Female adolescents with anorexia nervosa and their parents: A case-control study of exercise attitudes and behaviours. Psychol Med 2005; 35: 377-386.
29. Janet P,. Les obsessions et la psychasthénie. Paris: Felix Alcan, 1903.
30. Bruch H,. Anorexia nervosa and its differential diagnosis. J Nerv Ment Dis 1966; 141: 555-556.
31. Beumont PJV, Arthur B, Russell JD, Touyz SV,. Excessive physical activity in dieting disorder patients: Proposals for a supervised exercise programme. Int J Eat Disord 1994; 15: 21-36.
32. Watanabe K, Hara C, Ogawa N,. Feeding conditions and estrous cycle of female rats under the A-S stress procedure from aspects of anorexia nervosa. Physiol Behav 1992; 51: 827-832.
33. Støving RK, Hangaard J, Hagen C,. Update on endocrine disturbances in anorexia nervosa. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2001; 14: 459-80.
34. Lawson EA, Klibanski A,. Endocrine abnormalities in anorexia nervosa. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2008; 4: 407-14.
35. Paré WP,. Body temperature and the activity-stress ulcer in the rat. Physiol Behav 1977; 18: 219-223.
36. Watanabe K, Hara C, Ogawa N,. Relationship between running activity rhythm and the development of activity-stress ulcer in rats. Jap J Pharmacol 1990; 52: 421-429.
37. Wakeling A, Russell GFM,. Disturbances in the regulation of body temperature in anorexia nervosa. Psychol Med 1970; 1: 30-39.
38. Doerries LE, Stanley EZ, Aravich PF,. Activity- based anorexia: Relationship to gender and activity-stress ulcers. Physiol Behav 1991; 50: 945-949.
39. Hall RCW, Beresford TP,. Medical complications of anorexia and bulimia. Psychiatr Med 1989; 7: 165-192.
40. Berkman JM,. Anorexia nervosa, anorexia, inanition, and low basal metabolic rate. Am J Med Sci 1930; 80: 411-424.
41. Barboriak JJ, Wilson AS, Schulte WJ, Knoblock HWJR,. Running activity and gastric ulcers in the rat. Experimentia 1972; 28: 1179-1180.
42. Pare WP, Houser VP,. Activity and food-restriction effects on gastric glandular lesions in the rat: The activity-stress ulcer. Bull Psychonomic Soc 1973; 2: 213-214.
43. Epling WF, Pierce WD,. Activity-based anorexia in rats as a function of opportunity to run on an activity wheel. Nutr Behav 1984; 2: 37-49.
44. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: APA, 2000.
45. Broocks A, Liu J, Pirke KM,. Semistarvation-induced hyperactivity compensates for decreased norepinephrine and dopamine turnover in the mediobasal hypothalamus of the rat. J Neural Transm 1990; 79: 113-124.
46. Altemus M, Glowa JR, Galliven E, Leong Y, Murphy DL,. Effects of serotoninergic agents on food-restriction-induced hyperactivity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1996; 53: 123-131.
47. Gutiérrez E, Vazquez R, Boakes R,. Activity-based anorexia: Ambient temperature has been a neglected factor. Psychonomic Bull Rev 2002; 9: 239-249.
48. Lattanzio SB, Eikelboom R,. Wheel access duration in rats: I. Effects on feeding and running. Behav Neurosci 2003; 117: 496-504.
49. Paré WP,. The influence of food comsumption and running activity on the activity-stress ulcer in the rat. Digest Dis 1975; 20: 262-273.
50. Boakes RA, Dwyer DM,. Weight loss in rats produced by running: Effects of prior experience and individual housing. Q J Exp Psychol 1997; 50B: 129-148.
51. Pare WP, Vincent GP, Isom KE, Reeves JM,. Sex diferences and incidenc of activity-stress ulcer in the rat. Psychol Rep 1978; 4: 591-594.
52. Cerrato M, Carrera O, Vazquez R, Echevarría E, Gutierrez E,. Heat makes a difference in activity-based anorexia: A translational approach to treatment development in anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord 2012; 45: 26-35
53. Mondon CE, Dolkas CB, Sims C, Reaven GM,. Spontaneous running activity in male rats: Effect of age. J App Physiol 1985; 58: 1553-1557.
54. Glavin GB, Paré WP,. Early weaning predisposes rats to exacerbated activity-stress ulcer formation. Physiol Behav 1985; 34: 907-909.
55. Carrera O, Gutiérrez E, Boakes RA,. Handling effects on later vulnerability to activity-based anorexia. Dev Psychobiol 2006; 48: 520-527.
56. Carrera O, Cerrato M, Sanchez A, Gutiérrez E,. Long maternal separation has protective effects in rats exposed to activity-based anorexia. Dev Psychobiol 2009; 51: 616-624.
57. Hancock S, Grant V,. Early maternal separation increases symptoms of activity-based anorexia in male and female rats. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 2009; 35: 394-406.
58. Pare WP, Vincent GP,. Enviromental enrichment, running behavior and A-S ulcer in the rat. Med Sci Res 1989; 17: 35-36.
59. Paré WP,. Prior stress and susceptibility to stress ulcer. Physiol Behav 1986; 36: 1155-1159.
60. Paré WP,. Psychological studies of stress ulcer in the rat. Brain Res Bull 1980; 5 (Suppl. 1): 73-79.
61. Routtenberg A,. Self-starvation of rats living in activity wheels: Adaptation effects. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1968; 66: 234-238.
62. Pare WP, Valdsaar E,. The effects of housing and preshock on A-S ulcer. Physiol Psychol 1985; 13: 33-36.
63. Fraga A, De Pedro B, Cerrato M, Carrera O, Gutiérrez E,. Effect of auditory isolation on activity-based anorexia. Psicothema 2012; 24: 416-421.
64. Kanarek RB, Collier G,. Self-Starvation: A problem of overriding the satiety signal? Physiol Behav 1983; 30: 307-311.
65. Lambert KG, Peacock LJ,. Feeding regime affects activity-stress ulcer production. Physiol Behav 1989; 48: 743-746.
66. Pérez-Padilla A, Magalhães P, Pellõn R,. The effects of food presentation at regular or irregular times on the development of activity-based anorexia in rats. Behav Process 2010; 84: 541-545.
67. Dwyer DM, Boakes RA,. Activity-based anorexia in rats as a failure to adapt to a feeding schedule. Behav Neurosci 1997; 111: 195-205.
68. Barboriak JJ, Wilson AS,. Effect of diet on self-starvation in the rat. J Nutr 1972; 102: 1543-1546.
69. Brown AJ, Avena NM, Hoebel BG,. A high-fat diet prevents and reverses the development of activity-based anorexia in rats. Int J Eat Disord 2008; 41: 383-389.
70. Levitsky DA, Collier G,. Schedule induced wheel running. Physiol Behav 1968; 3: 571-573.
71. Verhagen LA, Luijendijk MC, de Groot JW, van Dommelen LP, Klimstra AG, Adan RA, et al. Anticipation of meals during restricted feeding increases activity in the hypothalamus in rats. Eur J Neurosci 2011; 34: 1485-1491.
72. Scheurink AJ, Boersma GJ, Nergårdh R, Södersten P,. Neurobiology of hyperactivity and reward: Agreeable restlessness in anorexia nervosa. Physiol Behav 2010; 100: 490-495.
73. Carrera O, Adan RAH, Gutierrez E, Danner U, Hoek H, Van Elburg AA, et al. Anorexia nerviosa: Hyperactivity in anorexia nervosa: Warming up not just burning-off calories. PLoS ONE 2012; 7: e41851.
74. Fessler DMT,. Pseudoparadoxical impulsivity in restrictive anorexia nervosa: A consequence of the logic of scarcity. Int J Eat Disord 2002; 31: 376-388.
75. Horton T, Braun B,. Sex-based differences in substrate metabolism. Adv Mol Cell Biol 2004; 34: 209-227.
76. Hoyenga KB, Hoyenga KT,. Gender and energy balance: Sex differences in adaptations for feast and famine. Physiol Behr 1982; 28: 545-563.
77. Arun CP,. Drive for leanness, anorexia nervosa, and overactivity: The missing link. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1148: 526-529.
78. Wise RA,. Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nat Rev Neurosci 2004; 5: 483-494.
79. Koob GF,. Dopamine, addiction and reward. Semin Neurosci 1992; 4: 139-148.
80. Rivest S, Richard D,. Involvement of corticrotropin-releasing factor in the anorexia induced by exercise. Brain Res Bull 1990; 25: 169-172.
81. Burden VR, White BD, Dean RG, Martin RJ,. Activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is elevated in rats with activity-based anorexia. J Nutr 1993; 123: 1217-1225.
82. Overton PG, Tong ZY, Brain PF, Clark D,. Preferential occupation of mineralocorticoid receptors by corticosterone enhances glutamate-induced burst firing in rat midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Brain Res 1996; 737: 146-154.
83. Aravich PF, Rieg TS, Lauterio TJ, Doerries LE,. Beta-endorphin and dynorphin abnormalities in rats subjected to exercise and restricted feeding: Relationship to anorexia nervosa. Brain Res 1993; 622: 1-8.
84. Schebendach JE, Klein DA, Foltin RW, Devlin MJ, Walsh BT,. Relative reinforcing value of exercise in inpatients with anorexia nervosa: Model development and pilot data. Int J Eat Disord 2007; 40: 446-453.
85. Xi ZX, Stein EA,. GABAergic mechanisms of opiate reinforcement. Alcohol Alcohol. 2002; 37: 485-494.
86. Hommel JD, Trinko R, Sears RM, Georgescu D, Liu ZW, Gao XB, et al. Leptin receptor signaling in midbrain dopamine neurons regulates feeding. Neuron 2006; 51: 801-810.
87. Casper RC,. Behavioral activation and lack of concern, core symptoms of anorexia nervosa? Int J Eat Disord 1998; 24: 381-393.
88. Garland T Jr, Schutz H, Chappell MA, Keeney BK, Meek TH, Copes LE, et al. The biological control of voluntary exercise, spontaneous control of physical activity and daily energy expenditure in relation to obesity: Human and rodent perspectives. J Exp Biol 2011; 214: 206-229.
89. Brobeck JR,. Food intake as a mechanism of temperature regulation. Yale J Biol Med 1948; 20: 545-552.
90. Verhagen LA, Luijendijk MC, Hillebrand JJ, Adan RA,. Dopamine antagonism inhibits anorectic behavior in an animal model for anorexia nervosa. Eur Neuropsychopharm 2009; 19: 153-160.
91. Lambert KG, Porter JH,. Pimozide mitigates excesive running in the activity-stress paradigm. Physiol Behav 1992; 52: 299-304.
92. Hillebrand JJ, Van Elburg AA, Kas MJ, van Engeland HY, Adan RA,. Olanzapine reduces physical activity in rats exposed to activity-based anorexia: Possible implications for treatment of anorexia nervosa? Biol Psychiatr 2005; 58: 651-657.
93. Klenotich SJ, Seiglie MP, McMurray MS, Roitman JD, Le Grange D, Dugad P, et al. Olanzapine, but not fluoxetine, treatment increases survival in activity-based anorexia in mice. Neuropsychopharm 2012; 37: 1620-1631.
94. Kaye WH, Fudge JL, Paulus M,. New insights into symptoms and neurocircuit function of anorexia nervosa. Nat Rev Neurosci 2009; 10: 573-584
95. Yokoyama F, Onozawa K, Kakui N, Imanishi T,. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluvoxamine suppresses post-feeding hyperactivity induced by food restriction in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 87: 98-103.
96. Atchley DP, Eckel LA,. Treatment with 8-OH-DPAT atte-nuates the weight loss associated with activity-based anorexia in female rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2006; 83: 547-553.
97. Atchley DP, Eckel LA,. Fenfluramine treatment in female rats accelerates the weight loss associated with activity-based anorexia. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2005; 80: 273-279.
98. Hillebrand JJ, Heinsbroek AC, Kas MJ, Adan RA,. The appetite suppressant d-fenfluramine reduces water intake, but not food intake, in activity-based anorexia. J Mol Endocrinol 2006; 36: 153-162.
99. Leon LR,. The use of gene knockout mice in thermoregulation studies. J Therm Biol 2005; 30: 273-288.
100. Lambert KG,. The activity-stress paradigm: Possible mechanisms and applications. J Gen Psychol 1993; 120: 21-32.
101. Morrow NS, Schall M, Grijalva CV, Geiselman PJ, Garrick T, Nuccion S, et al. Body temperature and wheel running predict survival times in rats exposed to activity-stress. Physiol Behav 1997; 62: 815-825.
102. Hillebrand JJ, de Rijke CE, Brakkee JH, Kas MJ, Adan RA,. Voluntary access to a warm plate reduces hyperactivity in activity-based anorexia. Physiol Behav 2005; 85: 151-157.
103. Herrington LP,. The heat regulation of small laboratory animals at various environmental temperatures. Am J Physiol 1940; 129: 123-139.
104. Gutiérrez E, Baysari M, Carrera O, Whitford T, Boakes RA,. Ambient temperature and body-weight loss in the activity-based anorexia procedure. Q J Exp Psychol 2006; 59: 1196-1211.
105. Gutiérrez E, Cerrato M, Carrera O, Vázquez R,. Heat reversal of activity-based anorexia: Implications for the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord 2008; 41: 594-601.
106. Gutierrez E, Churruca I, Zarate J, Carrera O, Portillo M P, Cerrato M, et al. High ambient temperature reverses hypothalamic MC4 receptor overexpression in an animal model of anorexia nervosa. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009; 34: 420-429.
107. Cerrato M, Carrera O, Vázquez R, Echevarria E, Gutiérrez E,. Heat makes a difference in activity-based anorexia: A translational approach to treatment development in anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord 2012; 45: 26-35.
108. Casper RC, Sullivan EL, Tecott L,. Relevance of animal models to human eating disorders and obesity. Psychopharmacology 2008; 99: 313-329.
109. Rieg TS,. Validity criteria for animal models of anorexia nervosa involving activity. In, Epling WF, Pierce WD, editors. 1996, op. cit., pp. 13-21.
110. Lee S, Ng KL, Kwok KP, Thomas JJ, Becker AE,. Gastrointestinal dysfunction in Chinese patients with fat-phobic and nonfat-phobic anorexia nervosa. Transcult Psychiat 2012; 49: 678-695.
111. Becker AE, Thomas JJ, Pike KM,. Should non-fat-phobic anorexia nervosa be included in DSM-V? Int J Eat Disord 2009; 42: 620-635.
112. Bruch H,. Perceptual and conceptual disturbances in anorexia nervosa. Psychosom Med 1962; 24: 187-194.
113. Halmi KA,. Perplexities and provocations of eating disorders. JChild Psychol Psychiat 2009; 50: 163-169.
114. Dally PJ, Oppenheim GB, Sargant W,. Anorexia nervosa. Brit Med J 1958; 2: 633-634.
115. Dally PJ, Sargant W,. Treatment and outcome of anorexia nervosa. Brit Med J 1966; 2: 793-795.
116. Vandereycken W, Pierloot R,. Pimozide combined with behavior therapy in the short-term treatment of anorexia nervosa. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1982; 66: 445-450.
117. Lebow J, Sim LA, Erwin PJ, Murad MH,. The effect of atypical antipsychotic medications in individuals with anorexia nervosa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Eat Disord, in press.
118. Quinn R,. Comparing rat's to human's age: How old is my rat in people years? Nutrition 2005; 21: 775-777.
119. Hillebrand JJ, Kas MJ, Scheurink AJ, van Dijk G, Adan RA,. AgRP (83-132) and SHU9119 differently affect activity-based anorexia. Eur Neuropsychopharm 2006; 16: 403-412.
120. Lewis DY, Brett RR,. Activity-based anorexia in C57/BL6 mice: Effects of the phytocannabinoid, Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the anandamide analogue, OMDM-2. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2010; 20: 622-631.
121. Exner C, Hebebrand J, Remschmidt H, Wewetzer C, Ziegler A, Herpertz S, et al. Leptin suppresses semi-starvation induced hyperactivity in rats: Implications for anorexia nervosa. Mol Psychiat 2000; 5: 476-481.
122. Hillebrand JJ, Koeners MP, Rijke CE, de Kas MJ, Adan RA,. Leptin treatment in activity-based anorexia. Biol Psychiat 2005; 58: 165-171.
123. Aravich PF, Rieg TS, Ahmed I, Lauterio TJ,. Fluoxetine induces vasopressin and oxytocin abnormalities in food-restricted rats given voluntary exercise: Relationships to anorexia nervosa. Brain Res 1993; 612: 180-189.
124. Lett BT, Grant VL, Neville LL, Davis MJ, Koh MT,. Chlordiazepoxide counteracts activity-induced suppression of eating in rats. Exp Clin Pharmacol 1997; 5: 24-27.
125. Wilckens T, Schweiger U, Pirke KM,. Activation of alpha 2-adrenoceptors suppresses excessive wheel running in the semistarvation-induced hyperactive rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1992; 43: 733-738.
126. Wilckens T, Schweiger U, Pirke KM,. Activation of 5-HT1C-receptors suppresses excessive wheel running induced by semi-starvation in the rat. Psychopharmacology 1992; 109: 77-84.
127. Adams KL, Parfeniuk GG, Eikelboom R,. Chlorpromazine specifically prevents the wheel-induced feeding suppression in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 93: 470-473.
128. Smith GP,. Animal models of human eating disorders. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1989; 575: 63-74.
129. Klein DA, Walsh BT,. Translational approaches to understanding anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord 2005; 37: S10-S14.
130. Willner P,. Methods for assessing the validity of animal models of human psychopathology. In:, Boulton A, Baker G, Martin-Iverson M, editors. Animal Models in Psychiatry. Clifton, NJ: The Humana Press; 1991. pp. 1-23.
131. Shanks N, Greek R, Greek J,. Are animal models predictive for humans? Philos Ethics Humanit Med 2009; 4: 2.
132. Garner DM, Olmsted MP, Bohr Y, Garfinkel PE,. The eating attitudes test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychol Med 1982; 12: 871-878.
133. Gelegen C, Collier DA, Campbell IC, Oppelaar H, Kas MJ,. Behavioral, physiological, and molecular differences in response to dietary restriction in three inbred mouse strains. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006; 291: E574-E581.
134. Coscina DV, Garfinkel PE,. Animal models of eating disorders: A clinical persperctive. In, Willner P, editor. Behavioural models of psychopharmacology: Theoretical, industrial and clinical perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge Universtity Press, 1991. pp. 237-250.
135. Scarlett JM, Bowe DD, Zhu X, Batra AK, Grant WF, Marks DL,. Genetic and pharmacologic blockade of central melanocortin signaling attenuates cardiac cachexia in rodent models of heart failure. J Endocrinol 2010; 206: 121.
136. DeBoer MD,. Update on melanocortin interventions for cachexia: Progress toward clinical application. Nutrition 2010; 26: 146-151.
137. Bowlby J,. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1. New York: Basic Books, 1969.
138. Hofer MA,. Early social relationships as regulators of infant physiology and behaviour. Acta Paediatr 1994; 397: 9-18.