Reassessing and Redirecting Research on Race and Sentencing

Justice Quarterly

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 231-261

  Baumer, Eric P ^a  

^a FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

disparity; imprisonment; judicial; race; sentencing

Indexed keywords

EID: 84875329565     PISSN: 07418825     EISSN: 17459109     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07418825.2012.682602     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Albonetti, C. A. 1990. Race and the probability of pleading guilty. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 6(3): 315-334.
2. Alexander, M. 2010. The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness, New York, NY: The New Press.
3. Anderson, E. 1999. Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city, New York, NY: Norton.
4. Baldus, D. C., Brain, J., Weiner, N. A. and Woodworth, G. 2008. Evidence of racial discrimination in the use of the death penalty: A story from Southwest Arkansas (1990-2005) with special reference to the case of death row inmate Frank Williams, Jr. Tennessee Law Review, 76: 555-614.
5. Baldus, D. C. and Woodworth, G. 2003. Race discrimination in the administration of the death penalty: An overview of the empirical evidence with special emphasis on the post-1990 research. Criminal Law Bulletin, 39: 194-226.
6. Baldus, D. C., Woodworth, G. A., Zuckerman, D., Weiner, N. A. and Broffitt, B. 1998. Race discrimination and the death penalty in the post-Furman era: An empirical and legal overview, with recent findings from Philadelphia. Cornell Law Review, 83: 1638-1770.
7. Baumer, E. P., Messner, S. F. and Felson, R. B. 2000. The role of victim characteristics in the disposition of murder cases. Justice Quarterly, 17(2): 281-308.
8. Berk, R., Li, A. and Hickman, L. J. 2005. Statistical difficulties in determining the role of race in capital cases: A re-analysis of data from the State of Maryland. Journal of Qualitative Criminology, 21(4): 365-390.
9. Blumstein, A. 1982. On the racial disproportionality of United States' prison populations. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 73(3): 1259-1281.
10. Blumstein, A. 1993. Racial disproportionality of US prison populations revisited. Colorado Law Review, 64: 743-760.
11. Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Martin, S. E. and Tonry, M. H., eds. 1983. Research on sentencing: The search for reform, Vol. 1, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
12. Brennan, P. K. 2006. Sentencing female misdemeanants: An examination of the direct and indirect effects of race/ethnicity. Justice Quarterly, 23: 60-95.
13. Bridges, G. S. and Steen, S. 1998. Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders: Attributional stereotypes as mediating mechanisms. American Sociological Review, 63(4): 554-570.
14. Britt, C. 2000. Social context and racial disparities in punishment decisions. Justice Quarterly, 17: 707-732.
15. Buckholtz, J. W., Asplund, C. L., Dux, P. E., Zald, D. H., Gore, J. C., Jones, O. D. and Marois, R. 2008. The neural correlates of third-party punishment. Neuron, 30: 930-940.
16. Bushway, S. D., Johnson, B. D. and Slocum, L. A. 2007. Is the magic still there? The use of the Heckman two-step correction of selection bias in criminology. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 23: 151-178.
17. Bushway, S. D. and Piehl, A. M. 2001. Judging judicial discretion: Legal factors and racial discrimination in sentencing. Law and Society Review, 35(4): 733-764.
18. Chiricos, T. G. and Crawford, C. 1995. "Race and imprisonment: A contextual assessment of the evidence". In Ethnicity, race, and crime, Edited by: Hawkins, D. 281-309. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
19. Demuth, S. 2003. Racial and ethnic differences in pretrial release decisions and outcomes: A comparison of Hispanic, black and white felony arrestees. Criminology, 41: 873-908.
20. Diamond, S. S. 1995. The challenges of socio-legal research on decision making: Psychological successes and failures. Journal of Law and Society, 22(1): 78-84.
21. Eberhardt, J. L., Davies, P. G., Purdie-Vaughns, V. J. and Johnson, S. L. 2006. Looking death worthy. Psychological Science, 17(5): 383-386.
22. Eisenstein, J., Flemming, R. and Nardulli, P. 1988. The contours of justice: Communities and their courts, Boston, MA: Little, Brown.
23. Engen, R. L. 2009. Assessing determinate and presumptive sentencing-making research relevant. Criminology and Public Policy, 8: 323-336.
24. Engen, R. L. and Gainey, R. R. 2000. Modeling the effects of legally relevant and extralegal factors under sentencing guidelines: The rules have changed. Criminology, 38(4): 1207-1230.
25. Everett, R. S. and Wojtkiewicz, R. A. 2002. Difference, disparity, and race/ethnic bias in federal sentencing. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 18(2): 189-211.
26. Fearn, N. 2005. A multilevel analysis of community effects on criminal sentencing. Justice Quarterly, 22(4): 452-487.
27. Frase, R. S. 2009. What explains persistent racial disproportionality in Minnesota's prison and jail populations?. Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research, 38: 201-280.
28. Frase, R. S. (2010). Research on race and sentencing: Goals, methods, topics. Unpublished manuscript presented at the Symposium on The Past and Future of Empirical Sentencing Research, University at Albany, SUNY. Retrieved fromhttp://www.albany.edu/scj/symposium_home.php
29. Frenzel, E. D. and Ball, J. D. 2008. Effects of individual characteristics on plea negotiations under sentencing guidelines. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 5(4): 59-82.
30. Goldin, C. and Rouse, C. 2000. Orchestrating impartiality: The impact of "blind" auditions on female musicians. The American Economic Review, 90(4): 715-741.
31. Gorton, J. and Boies, J. L. 1999. Sentencing guidelines and racial disparity across time: Pennsylvania prison sentences in 1977, 1983, 1992 and 1993. Social Science Quarterly, 80(1): 37-54.
32. Gottschalk, M. 2008. Hiding in plain sight: American politics and the carceral state. Annual Review of Political Science, 11: 235-260.
33. Graham, S. and Lowry, B. S. 2004. Priming unconscious racial stereotypes about adolescent offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 28: 483-504.
34. Hagan, J. 1974. Extra-legal attributes and criminal sentencing: An assessment of a sociological viewpoint. Law & Society Review, 8: 357-383.
35. Harris, A. 2009. Attributions and institutional processing: How focal concerns guide decision-making in the Juvenile court. Race and Social Problems, 1(4): 243-256.
36. Harris, C. T., Steffensmeier, D., Ulmer, J. T. and Painter-Davis, N. 2009. Are blacks and Hispanics disproportionately incarcerated relative to their arrests? Racial and ethnic disproportionality between arrest and incarceration. Race and Social Problems, 1(4): 187-199.
37. Hofer, P. J. 2007. United States v Booker as a natural experiment: Using empirical research to inform the federal sentencing policy debate. Criminology and Public Policy, 6(3): 433-460.
38. Johnson, B. D. 2006. The multilevel context of criminal sentencing: Integrating judge and county level influences in the study of courtroom decision making. Criminology, 44(2): 259-298.
39. Keen, B. and Jacobs, D. 2009. Racial threat, partisan politics, and racial disparities in prison admissions: A panel analysis. Criminology, 47(1): 209-238.
40. Kennedy, R. F. 1997. Race, crime, and the law, New York, NY: Pantheon Press.
41. King, R. D., Johnson, K. R. and McGeever, K. 2010. Demography of the legal profession and racial disparities in sentencing. Law and Society Review, 44(1): 1-31.
42. Kleck, G. 1981. Racial discrimination in sentencing: A critical evaluation of the evidence with additional evidence on the death penalty. American Sociological Review, 43: 783-805.
43. Koons-Witt, B. A. 2002. The effect of gender on the decision to incarcerate before and after the introduction of sentencing guidelines. Criminology, 40(2): 297-328.
44. Kurlychek, M. C. and Johnson, B. D. 2010. Juvenility and punishment: Sentencing juveniles in adult criminal court. Criminology, 48: 725-758.
45. LaFree, G. D. 1985. Official reactions to Hispanic defendants in the Southwest. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 22: 213-237.
46. LaFree, G. D. 1998. Losing legitimacy: Street crime and the decline of social institutions in America, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
47. Langan, P. A. 1985. Racism on trial: New evidence to explain the racial composition of prisons in the United States. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 76(3): 606-666.
48. Levinson, J. D. 2007. Forgotten racial equality: Implicit bias, decisionmaking, and misremembering. Duke Law Journal, 57: 345-424.
49. Levinson, J. D. and Young, D. 2010. Different shades of bias: Skin tone, implicit racial bias, and judgments of ambiguous evidence. West Virginia Law Review, 112: 307-350.
50. Miethe, T. D. and Moore, C. A. 1985. Socioeconomic disparities under determinate sentencing systems: A comparison of preguideline and postguideline practices in Minnesota. Criminology, 23: 337-363.
51. Mitchell, O. 2005. A meta-analysis of race and sentencing research: Explaining the inconsistencies. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 21(4): 439-466.
52. Myers, M. A. and Talarico, S. 1987. The social contexts of criminal sentencing, New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
53. National Research Council. 2004. Measuring racial discrimination, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
54. Pager, D. 2007. Marked: Race, crime, and finding work in an era of mass incarceration, Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
55. Pager, D. and Shepherd, H. 2008. The sociology of discrimination: Racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit, and consumer markets. Annual Review of Sociology, 34: 181-209.
56. Paternoster, R. and Brame, R. 2008. Reassessing race disparities in Maryland capital cases. Criminology, 46(4): 971-1008.
57. Pratt, T. C. 1998. Race and sentencing: A meta-analysis of conflicting empirical research results. Journal of Criminal Justice, 26(6): 513-523.
58. Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D. and Hayes, A. F. 2007. Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescription. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42: 185-227.
59. Rachlinski, J. J., Johnson, S. L., Wistrich, A. J. and Guthrie, C. 2009. Does unconscious racial bias affect trial judges?. Notre Dame Law Review, 84(3): 1195-1252.
60. Reitz, K. R. 1998. Modeling discretion in American sentencing systems. Law and Policy, 20(4): 389-428.
61. Reitz, K. R. 2006. Don't blame determinacy: US incarceration growth has been driven by other forces. Texas Law Review, 84(7): 1787-1802.
62. Richter, E. M. and Wiener, R. L. 2007. Psychology and legal decision making: Where should we go from here?. Social Consciousness in Legal Decision Making, 14: 267-276.
63. Ridgeway, G. 2007. Analysis of racial disparities in the New York police department's stop, question, and frisk practices, Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
64. Ruth, H. S. and Reitz, K. 2003. The challenge of crime: Rethinking our response, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
65. Sampson, R. J. and Lauritsen, J. L. 1997. Racial and ethnic disparities in crime and criminal justice in the United States. Crime and Justice. A Review of Research, 21: 311-374.
66. Schanzenbach, Max. 2005. Racial and sex disparities in prison sentences: The effect of district-level judicial demographics. The Journal of Legal Studies, 34(1): 57-92.
67. Schlesinger, Traci. 2005. Racial and ethnic disparity in pretrial criminal processing. Justice Quarterly, 22(2): 170-192.
68. Simon, Dan. 2004. A third view of the black box: Cognitive coherence in legal decision-making. University of Chicago Law Review, 65: 511-586.
69. Sommers, S. R. 2006. On racial diversity and group decision making: Identifying multiple effects of racial composition on jury deliberations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(4): 597-612.
70. Sommers, S. R. 2007. Race and the decision making of juries. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 12: 171-187.
71. Spohn, C. 1992. An analysis of the "jury trial penalty" and its effect on black and white offenders. Justice Professional, 7: 93-112.
72. Spohn, C. (2000). Thirty years of sentencing reform: The quest for a racially neutral sentencing process. In Policies, processes, and decisions of the criminal justice system (Criminal Justice 2000 l3, 427-502). US Department of Justice. NCJ 182410.
73. Spohn, Cassia. 2009. Race, sex, and pretrial detention in Federal court: Indirect effects and cumulative disadvantage. University of Kansas Law Review, 57: 879-901.
74. Spohn, C., Gruhl, J. and Welch, S. 1981. The effect of race on sentencing: A re-examination of an unsettled question. Law & Society Review, 16: 72-88.
75. Spohn, C. and Spears, J. 1996. The effect of offender and victim characteristics on sexual assault case processing decisions. Justice Quarterly, 13(4): 649-679.
76. Steffensmeier, D., Kramer, J. H. and Streifel, C. 1993. Gender and imprisonment decisions. Criminology, 31: 411-446.
77. Sweeney, L. T. and Haney, C. 1992. The influence of race on sentencing: A meta-analytic review of experimental studies. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 10: 179-195.
78. Tonry, M. 1995. Malign neglect: Race, crime, and punishment in America, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
79. Tonry, M. and Melewski, M. 2008. The malign effects of drug control policies on Black Americans. Crime and Justice, 37: 1-44.
80. Turner, M. A. and Skidmore, F. 1999. Mortgage lending discrimination: A review of existing evidence, Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
81. Ulmer, J. T. 1997. Social worlds of sentencing: Court communities under sentencing guidelines, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
82. Ulmer, J. T. 2000. The rules have changed-so proceed with caution: A comment on Engen and Gainey's method for modeling sentencing outcomes under guidelines. Criminology, 38: 1231-1243.
83. Ulmer, J. T. 2012. Recent developments and new directions in sentencing research. Justice Quarterly, 29(1): 1-40.
84. Ulmer, J. T. and Johnson, B. 2004. Sentencing in context: A multilevel analysis. Criminology, 42(1): 137-177.
85. Ulmer, J. T., Light, M. T., Eisenstein, J., & Kramer, J. H. (2010). Does increased judicial discretion lead to increased disparity? The "liberation" of judicial sentencing discretion in the wake of the Booker/Fanfan decision. Unpublished manuscript, The Pennsylvania State University.
86. United States Sentencing Commission. 2010. Demographic differences in federal sentencing practices: An update of the Booker Report's multivariate regression analysis, Washington, DC: United States Sentencing Commission.
87. Western, B. 2006. Punishment and inequality in America, New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
88. Wooldredge, J. 2010. Judges' unequal contributions to extralegal disparities in imprisonment. Criminology, 48: 539-567.
89. Wooldredge, J. 2012. Distinguishing race effects on pre-trial release and sentencing decisions. Justice Quarterly, 29(1): 41-75.
90. Yinger, J. 1995. Closed doors, opportunities lost: The continuing costs of housing discrimination, New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
91. Zatz, M. S. 1987. The changing forms of racial/ethnic biases in sentencing. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 24: 69-92.
92. Zatz, M. S. 2000. "The convergence of race, ethnicity, gender, and class on court decision making: Looking toward the 21st century". In Policies, processes, and decisions in the criminal justice system, Edited by: Horney, J. 503-552. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.