Hiding in plain sight: American politics and the carceral state

Annual Review of Political Science

Volumn 11, Issue , 2008, Pages 235-260

  Gottschalk, Marie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Criminal justice; Mass imprisonment; Mass incarceration; Penal policy

Indexed keywords

EID: 47549084497     PISSN: 10942939     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.060606.135218     Document Type: Article

References (167)

1. Abramsky S. 2007. American Furies: Crime, Punishment, and Vengeance in the Age of Mass Imprisonment. Boston: Beacon
2. Alix EK. 1978. Ransom Kidnapping in America, 1814-1914: The Creation of a Capital Crime. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Ill. Univ. Press
3. American Sociological Association, Task Force on Institutionalizing Public Sociologies. 2005. Public sociology and the roots of American sociology: re-establishing our connections to the public. http://pubsoc.wisc.edu/e107_files/public/tfreport090105.pdf
4. Ayers EL. 1984. Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the 19th-century American South. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
5. Barker V. 2006. The politics of punishing: building a state governance theory of American imprisonment variation. Punishment Soc. 8:5-32
6. Baumgartner FR, De Boef S, Boydstun AE. 2008. The Decline of the Death Penalty and the Discovery of Innocence. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
7. Bazelon DL. 1978. The hidden politics of criminology. Fed. Probation 42:3-9
8. Beaumont G, Tocqueville A. 1979 (1833). On the Penitentiary System in the United States and Its Application in France. Carbondale: Southern Ill. Univ. Press
9. Beckett K. 1997. Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
10. Beckett K, Western B. 2001. Governing social marginality: welfare, incarceration, and the transformation of state policy. Punishment Soc. 3:43-59
11. Bensel R. 2003. The tension between American political development as a research community and as a disciplinary subfield. Stud. Am. Polit. Dev. 17:103-6
12. Bernstein N. 2005. All Alone in the World: Children of the Incarcerated. New York: New Press
13. Bobo LD. 2004. Inequalities that endure? Racial ideology, American politics, and the peculiar role of the social sciences. In The Changing Terrain of Race and Ethnicity, ed. M Krysan, AE Lewis, pp. 13-42. New York: Russell Sage Found.
14. Bobo LD, Johnson D. 2004. A taste for punishment: black and white Americans' views on the death penalty and the war on drugs. Du Bois Rev. 1:151-80
15. Bobo LD, Thompson V. 2006. Unfair by design: the war on drugs, race, and the legitimacy of the criminal justice system. Soc. Res. 732(Summer):445-72
16. Bohrman R, Murakawa N. 2005. Remaking big government: immigration and crime control in the United States. In Global Lockdown: Race, Gender, and the Prison-Industrial Complex, ed. J Sudbury, pp. 109-26. New York: Routledge
17. Bonczar TP. 2003. Prevalence of imprisonment in the U.S. population, 1912-2001. Bur. Justice Spec. Rep., US Dep. Justice
18. Braz R, Gilmore C. 2006. Joining forces: prisons and environmental justice in recent California organizing. Radic. Hist. Rev. 96:95-111
19. Brown-Dean KL. 2004. One lens, multiple views: felon disenfranchisement laws and American political inequality. PhD thesis. Ohio State Univ. 264 pp.
20. Burawoy M, Gamson W, Ryan C, et al. 2004. Public sociologies: a symposium from Boston College. Soc. Prob. 51:103-30
21. Burch T. 2007. Punishment and participation: how criminal convictions threaten American democracy. PhD thesis. Harvard Univ. 250 pp.
22. Burton-Rose D, Pens D, Wright P, eds. 1998. The Celling of America: An Inside Look at the U.S. Prison Industry. Monroe, ME: Common Courage
23. Butler P. 2003/2004. Much respect: toward a hip-hop theory of punishment. Stanford Law Rev. 56:983-1016
24. Cahalan M. 1979. Trends in incarceration in the United States since 1880: a summary of reported rates and the distribution of offenses. Crime Delinquency 25:9-41
25. Caplow T, Simon J. 1999. Understanding prison policy and population trends. In Prisons - Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, ed. M Tonry, J Petersilia, 26:63-120. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
26. Carleton MT. 1971. Politics and Punishment: The History of the Louisiana Penal System. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press
27. Chambliss WJ. 1999. Power, Politics, and Crime. Boulder, CO: Westview
28. Christiansen S. 1998. With Liberty For Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America. Boston: Northeastern Univ. Press
29. Clawson D, Zussman R, Misra J, Gerstel N, Sokes R, et al., eds. 2007. Public Sociology: Fifteen Eminent Sociologists Debate Politics and the Profession in the Twenty-first Century. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
30. Clemetson L. 2004. NAACP legal defense fund chief retires. NY Times, Jan. 16:A10
31. Cohen CJ. 1999. The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
32. Cohen MA, Rust RT, Steen S. 2006. Prevention, crime control or cash? Public preferences towards criminal justice spending priorities. Justice Q. 23:317-35
33. Coker D. 2001. Crime control and feminist law reform in domestic violence law: a critical review. Buffalo Crim. Law Rev. 4:801-60
34. Coker D. 2004. Race, poverty, and the crime-centered response to domestic violence. Violence Against Women 10.11(November):1331-53
35. Cork DL, Voss PR, eds. 2006. Once, Only Once, and in the Right Place: Residence Rules in the Decennial Census. Natl. Res. Council, Panel on Residence Rules in the Decennial Census. Washington, DC: Natl. Acad.
36. Cullen FT, Fisher BS, Applegate BK. 2000. Public opinion about punishment and corrections. Crime Justice 27:1-79
37. Cummings H, McFarland C. 1937. Federal Justice: Chapters in the History of Justice and the Federal Executive. New York: Macmillan
38. Curtin ME. 2000. Black Prisoners and Their World, Alabama, 1865-1900. Charlottesville: Univ. Virginia Press
39. Das Gupta S. 2003. Safety and Justice for All: Examining the Relationship Between the Women's Anti-Violence Movement and the Criminal Legal System. New York: Ms. Found, for Women
40. Davey JD. 1998, The Politics of Prison Expansion: Winning Elections By Waging War on Crime. Westport, CT: Praeger
41. Dawson MC, Cohen C. 2002. Problems in the study of race. In Political Science: State of the Discipline, ed. I Katznelson, HV Milner, pp. 488-510. New York: WW Norton
42. DiIulio J Jr. 1997. Are voters fools? Crime, public opinion, and representative democracy. Corrections Manage. Q. 1:1-5
43. Domanick J. 2004. Cruel Justice: Three Strikes and the Politics of Crime in America's Golden State. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
44. Doob AN. 1995. The United States sentencing commission guidelines: if you don't know where you are going, you might not get there. In The Politics of Sentencing Reform, ed. C Clarkson, R Morgan, pp. 226-33. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
45. Dow M. 2004. American Gulag: Inside U.S. Immigration Prisons. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
46. DuBois WLB. 1970 (1932). Courts and jails. In The Selected Writings of W.E.B. DuBois, ed. W Wilson, pp. 126-27. New York: Signet Classics
47. Dumm TL. 1987. Democracy and Punishment: Disciplinary Origins of the United States. Madison: Univ. Wis. Press
48. Dyer J. 2000. The Perpetual Prisoner Machine: How America Profits from Crime. Boulder, CO: Westview
49. Edsall TB, Edsall MD. 1991. Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics. New York: WW Norton
50. Ewald AC. 2002. "Civil death": the ideological paradox of criminal disenfranchisement law in the United States. Wis. Law Rev. 2002:1045-138
51. Fierce MC. 1994. Slavery Revisited: Blacks and the Southern Convict Lease System, 1865-1933. New York: Africana Stud. Res. Cent., Brooklyn Coll., CUNY
52. Flamm MW. 2005. Law and Order: Street Crime, Civil Unrest, and the Crisis of Liberalism in the 1960s. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
53. Frase RS. 2001. Comparative perspectives on sentencing and research. In Sentencing and Sanctions in Western Countries, ed. M Tonry, RS Frase, pp. 259-92. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
54. Garland D. 2001. The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
55. Gaubatz KT. 1995. Crime in the Public Mind. Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press
56. Gelb J. 1987. Social movement "success": a comparative analysis of feminism in the United States and United Kingdom. In The Women's Movements of the United States and Western Europe, ed. MF Katzenstein, C McClung Mueller, pp. 267-89. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press
57. Gertner N. 2007. Alternatives to the carceral state: the judge's role. Soc. Res. 74.2(Summer):663-67
58. Gest T. 2001. Crime & Politics: Big Government's Erratic Campaign for Law and Order. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
59. Gilmore RW. 1999. You have dislodged a boulder: mothers and prisoners in the post Keynesian Californian landscape. Transforming Anthropol. 8:12-38
60. Gilmore RW. 2007. The Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
61. Glaze LE, Bonczar TP. 2006. Probation and parole in the United States, 2005. Bur. Justice Stat. Bull., rev. Jan. 18, 2007. US Dep. Justice
62. Golden R. 2005. War on the Family: Mothers in Prison and the Families They Leave Behind. New York: Routledge
63. Gómez AE. 2006. Resisting living death at Marion Federal Penitentiary, 1972. Radic. Hist. Rev. 96:58-86
64. Goodnough A. 2004. Disenfranchised Florida felons struggle to regain their rights. NYTimes, Mar. 28:1
65. Gordon DR. 1994. The Return of the Dangerous Classes: Drug Prohibition and Policy Politics. New York: WW Norton
66. Gottfredson SD, Taylor RB. 1987. Attitudes of correctional policymakers and the public. In America's Correctional Crisis: Prison Populations and Public Policy, ed. SD Gottfredson, S McConville, pp. 57-75. New York: Greenwood
67. Gottschalk M. 2006. The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
68. Gottschalk M. 2007. Prisoners of the Census Bureau. L.A. Times. Feb. 19:A9
69. Greenberg DF, West V. 2001. State prison populations and their growth, 1971-1991. Criminology 39:615-53
70. Gruber A. 2007. The feminist war on crime. Iowa Law Rev. 92(Mar.):741-833
71. Hallinan J. 2001. Going Up the River: Travels in a Prison Nation. New York: Random House
72. Harris MK. 1987. Moving into the new millennium: toward a feminist vision of justice. Prison J. 67:27-38
73. Harrison PM, Beck AJ. 2006. Prisoners in 2005. Bur. Justice Stat. Bull., rev. Jan. 18, 2007. US Dep. Justice
74. Hart PD, Research Associates. 2002. Changing Public Attitudes Toward the Criminal Justice System. New York: Open Society Inst.
75. Hawkins DF, Hardy KA. 1989. Black-white imprisonment rates: a state-by-state analysis. Soc. Justice 16:75-94
76. Heyer R, Wagner P. 2004. Too big to ignore: how counting people in prisons distorted Census 2000. http://www.prisonersofthecensus.org/ toobig/toobig.html
77. Hindus M. 1980. Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice, and Authority in Massachusetts and South Carolina, 1161-1918. Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press
78. Hirsch A. 1992. The Rise of the Penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
79. Hochschild J. 1995. Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
80. Hull EA. 2006. The Disenfranchisement of Ex-Felons. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press
81. International Centre for Prison Studies, 2007. Prison brief - highest to lowest rates. http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/rel/icps/worldbrief/ highest_to_lowest_rates.html
82. Jacobs D, Helms RD. 1996. Toward a political model of incarceration: a time-series examination of multiple explanations for prison admission rates. Am. J. Sociol. 102:322-57
83. Jacobson M. 2005. Downsizing Prisons: How to Reduce Crime and End Mass Incarceration. New York: NY Univ. Press
84. JFA Institute. 2007. Public Safety, Public Spending: Forecasting America's Prison Population 2001-2011. Philadelphia: Public Safety Performance Project of the Pew Charitable Trusts
85. Justice Policy Institute. 2001. Cutting Correctly: New Prison Policies for Times of Fiscal Crisis. Washington, DC: Justice Policy Inst.
86. Katzenstein MF. 2005. Rights without citizenship: activist politics and prison reform in the United States. In Routing the Opposition: Social Movements, Public Policy, and Democracy, ed. D Meyer, VJenness, H Ingram, pp. 236-58. Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press
87. Katzenstein MF, Rubin KD. 2002. How different? A comparison of the movement challenging exfelon disenfranchisement with suffrage politics of an earlier time. Presented at Annu. Meet. Am. Polit. Sci. Assoc., Boston, Aug. 29-Sep. 1
88. Kaufman-Osborn TV. 2002. From Noose to Needle: Capital Punishment and the Late Liberal State. Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press
89. Kelley RDG. 1996. Kickin' reality, kickin' ballistics: gangsta rap and postindustrial Los Angeles. In Droppin' Science: Critical Essays on Rap Music and Hip Hop Culture, ed. WE Perkins, pp. 117-58. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press
90. Kennedy R. 1997. Race, Crime, and the Law. New York: Pantheon
91. King DS, Smith RM. 2005. Racial orders in American political development. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 99:75-92
92. Kolodner M. 2006. Private prisons expect a boom: immigration enforcement to benefit detention companies. NY Times, Jul. 19:C1
93. Kraska PB, ed. 2001. Militarizing the American Criminal Justice System: The Changing Role of the Armed Forces and the Police. Boston: Northeastern Univ. Press
94. Leuchtenburg WE. 1963. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1940. New York: Harper & Row
95. Lichtenstein A. 1996. Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South. London, UK: Verso
96. Loo DD, Grimes RM. 2004. Polls, politics, and crime: the "law and order" issue of the 1960s. West. Criminal. Rev. 5(1):50-67
97. Lombardi C. 2002. Justice for battered women. The Nation, Jul. 15:24-27
98. Lotke E, Wagner P. 2004. Prisoners of the census: electoral and financial consequences of counting prisoners where they go, not where they come from. Pace Law Rev. 24:587-608
99. Lynch M. 2007. Sunbelt justice: the making of a post-rehabilitation penal regime. Unpublished ms.
100. Lyons W, Drew J. 2006. Punishing Schools: Fear and Citizenship in American Education. Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press
101. Mancini MJ. 1996. One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South, 1866-1928. Columbia: Univ. South Carolina Press
102. Manza J, Uggen C. 2006. Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
103. Manza J, Thompson M, Uggen C. 2006. Citizenship, democracy, and the civic reintegration of criminal offenders. Ann. Am. Acad. Polit. Soc. Sci. 605:281-310
104. Masur LP. 1989. Rites of Execution: Capital Punishment and the Transformation of American Culture, 1116-1865. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
105. McBride K. 2007. Punishment and Political Order. Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press
106. McDonald MP, Popkin S. 2001. The myth of the vanishing voter. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 95:963-74
107. McLennan R. 2001. The new penal state: globalization, history, and American criminal justice, c. 2000. Inter-Asia Cultur. Stud. 2:407-19
108. McLennan R. 2008. The Crisis of Imprisonment: Protest, Politics, and the Making of the American Penal State, 1818-1938. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
109. Meranze M. 1996. Laboratories of Virtue: Punishment, Revolution, and Authority in Philadelphia, 1160-1835. Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press
110. Miller LL. 2007. The representational bias of federalism: scope and bias in the political process revisited. Perspect. Polit. 5:305-21
111. Miller LL. 2008. The Perils of Federalism: Race, Poverty and the Politics of Crime Control. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
112. Minow M. 1998. Between vengeance and forgiveness: feminist response to violent injustice. N. Engl. Law Rev. 32:967-81
113. Morone J. 2003. Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American History. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
114. Murakawa N. 2005. Electing to punish: Congress, race, and the American criminal justice state. PhD thesis. Yale Univ. 207 pp.
115. Myers MA. 1998. Race, Labor and Punishment in the New South. Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press
116. New York Times. 2007. Gitmos across America. Editorial. Jun. 27:A22
117. O'Reilly K. 1982. A New Deal for the FBI: the Roosevelt administration, crime control, and national security. J. Am. Hist. 69:638-58
118. Orren K, Skowronek S. 2004. The Search for American Political Development. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
119. Oshinsky DM. 1996."Worse Than Slavery": Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice. New York: Free Press
120. Pager D. 2003. The mark of a criminal record. Am. J. Sociol. 108:937-75
121. Pager D. 2007. Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
122. Parenti C. 1999. Lockdown America: Police and Prisons in the Age of Crisis. London: Verso
123. Pattillo M, Weiman D, Western B, eds. 2004. Imprisoning America: The Social Effects of Mass Incarceration. New York: Russell Sage Found.
124. Pestritto RJ. 2000. Founding the Criminal Law: Punishment and Political Thought in the Origins of America. DeKalb: Northern Ill. Univ. Press
125. Pettus KI. 2005. Felony Disenfranchisement in America: Historical Origins, Institutional Racism, and Modern Consequences. New York: LFB Scholarly Publ.
126. Potter C. 1998. War on Crime: Bandits, G-Men, and the Politics of Mass Culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
127. Prisoners of the Census. 2006. Too big to ignore. Interactive tables: Union County. http://www.prisonersofithecensus.org/toobig/countydetail. phprgeo_id=05000US42119
128. Reed AJr. 2000a. Why is there no black political movement? In Class Notes: Posing As Politics and Other Thoughts on the American Scene, ed. A Reed Jr, pp. 3-9. New York: New Press
129. Reed AJr. 2000b. Posing as politics. In Class Notes: Posing As Politics and Other Thoughts on the American Scene, ed. A Reed, Jr, pp. 167-70. New York: New Press
130. Rhodes LA. 2004. Total Confinement: Madness and Reason in the Maximum Security Prison. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
131. Roberts D. 2003/2004. The social and moral cost of mass incarceration in African American communities. Stanford Law Rev. 56:1271-305
132. Roberts JV. 1997. American attitudes about punishment: myth and reality. In Sentencing Reform in Overcrowded Times: A Comparative Perspective, ed. M Tonry, pp. 31-57, New York: Oxford Univ. Press
133. Roberts JV, Stalans LJ. 1998. Crime, criminal justice, and public opinion. In The Handbook of Crime and Punishment, ed. M Tonry, pp. 31-57. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
134. Roberts JV, Stalans LJ, Indermauer D, Hough M, 2003. Penal Populism and Public Opinion: Lessons from Five Countries. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
135. Roberts S. 2006. Court asks if residency follows inmates up the river, NY Times May 13:B1
136. Rothman DJ. 1990. The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic. Boston: Little, Brown. Rev. ed.
137. Sarabi B, Bender E. 2000. The Prison Payoff: The Role of Politics and Private Prisons in the Incarceration Boom. Portland, OR: Western States Cent. and Western Prison Project
138. Sarat A, ed. 1999. The Killing State: Capital Punishment in Law, Politics, and Culture. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
139. Sarat A. 2001. When the State Kills: Capital Punishment and the American Condition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
140. Scheingold SA. 1998. Constructing the new political criminology: power, authority, and the post-liberal state. Law Soc. Inq. 23:857-95
141. Schneider AL. 2006. Patterns of change in the use of imprisonment in the American states: an integration of path dependence, punctuated equilibrium and policy design approaches. Polit. Res. Q. 59:457-70
142. Shapiro KA. 1998. A New South Rebellion: The Battle Against Convict Labor in the Tennessee Coalfields, 1811-1896. Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press
143. Sharp EB. 1999. The Sometime Connection: Public Opinion and Social Policy. Albany: State Univ. NY Press
144. Simon J. 2007. Governing Through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed American Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
145. Skogan WG. 2006. Police and Community in Chicago: A Tale of Three Cities. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
146. Skowronek S. 1982. Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1811-1920. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
147. Snider L. 1994. Criminalization: panacea for men who assault women but anathema for corporate criminals. In Social Inequality, Social Justice, ed. DH Currie, BD MacLean, pp. 101-24. Vancouver: Collective Press
148. Sontag D. 2002. Fierce entanglements. NY Times Mag. Nov. 17:52
149. Stark E. 2004. Insults, injury, and injustice. Violence Against Women 10.11(Nov.):1302-30
150. Strange C. 2006. Pain and death: transnational perspectives. Radie. Hist. Rev. 96:137-50
151. Sudbury J, ed. 2005. Global Lockdown: Race, Gender, and the Prison-Industrial Complex. New York: Routledge
152. Talvi SJA. 2007. Women Behind Bars: The Crisis of Women in the U.S. Prison System. Emeryville, CA: Seal Press
153. Tonry M. 1995. Malign Neglect: Race, Crime and Punishment in America, New York: Oxford Univ. Press
154. US Census Bureau, Population Division, n.d. Annual estimates of the population by five-year groups and sex for the United States: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2006. http://www.census.gov/popest/national/asrh/NC-EST2006-sa. html (accessed June 11, 2007)
155. Wacquant L. 2001. Deadly symbiosis: when ghetto and prison meet and mesh. Punishment Soc. 3:95-133
156. Wagner P. 2002. Importing constituents: prisoners and political clout in New York. Prison Legal News 13(10): 1-6
157. Wagner P. 2004. Prison expansion made 56 counties with declining populations appear to be growing in Census 2000. http://www. prisonersofthecensus.org/news/fact-26-4-2004.html
158. Walker DR. 1988. Penology for Profit: A History of the Texas Prison System, 1861-1912. College Station: Texas A&M Univ. Press
159. Warren DT. 2000. The intersection between voting rights and criminal justice: the national black organizational response to felon disenfranchisement. Unpubl. ms.
160. Weaver V. 2006. Dark prison: race, rights, and the politics of punishment. Presented at Policy Hist. Conf., Charlottesville, VA, Jun. 1-4
161. Western B. 2006. Punishment and Inequality in America. New York: Russell Sage Found.
162. Western B, Beckett K. 1999. How unregulated is the U.S. labor market? The penal system as a labor market institution. Am. J. Sociol. 104:1030-60
163. Whitman JQ. 2003. Harsh Justice: Criminal Punishment and the Widening Divide between America and Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
164. Wilson JQ. 1975. Thinking About Crime: New York: Basic Books
165. Zimring FE, Hawkins G, Kamin S. 2001. Punishment and Democracy: Three Strikes and You're Out in California. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
166. Zimring FE, Johnson DT. 2006. Public opinion and the governance of punishment in democratic political systems. Ann. Am. Acad. Polit. Soc. Sci. 605(May):266-80
167. Zorza J, Woods L. 1994. Analysis and Policy Implications of the New Domestic Violence Police Studies. New York: Natl. Org. Women Legal Defense and Educ. Fund