Human milk: A source of more life than we imagine

Beneficial Microbes

Volumn 4, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 17-30

  Jeurink, P V ^a,b   van Bergenhenegouwen, J ^a,b   Jimenez E ^c   Knippels, L M J ^a,b   Fernandez L ^c   Garssen, J ^a,b   Knol, J ^a,d   Rodriguez J M ^c   Martin R ^a  

^a DANONE RESEARCH   (Netherlands)

^b UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^c UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID   (Spain)

^d WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Active migration; Contamination; Health implications; Human milk; Human milk microbiome

Indexed keywords

ACTINOBACTERIA; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL TRANSMISSION; BACTERIUM CONTAMINATION; BACTERIUM CULTURE; BACTERIUM DETECTION; BACTERIUM IDENTIFICATION; BACTEROIDETES; BIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION; BREAST FEEDING; BREAST MILK; CHILD HEALTH; COMMENSAL; FIRMICUTES; HUMAN; INTESTINE FLORA; LACTATION; MAMMARY GLAND; MATERNAL NUTRITION; MATERNAL WELFARE; MICROBIAL DIVERSITY; MICROBIOME; NONHUMAN; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PROTEOBACTERIA; VERRUCOMICROBIA;

EID: 84875254461     PISSN: 18762883     EISSN: 18762891     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3920/BM2012.0040     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. American Academy of Paediatrics (AAP), 2012. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics 129: e827-841.
2. Aas, J.A., Paster, B.J., Stokes, L.N., Olsen, I. and Dewhirst, F.E., 2005. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43: 5721-5732.
3. Albesharat, R., Ehrmann, M.A., Korakli, M., Yazaji, S. and Vogel, R.F., 2011. Phenotypic and genotypic analyses of lactic acid bacteria in local fermented food, breast milk and faeces of mothers and their babies. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 34: 148-155.
4. Albrecht, S., Schols, H.A., Van den Heuvel, E.G., Voragen, A.G. and Gruppen, H., 2011. Occurrence of oligosaccharides in feces of breast-fed babies in their first six months of life and the corresponding breast milk. Carbohydrate Research 346: 2540-2550.
5. Alp, G. and Aslim, B., 2010. Relationship between the resistance to bile salts and low pH with exopolysaccharide (EPS) production of Bifidobacterium spp. isolated from infants feces and breast milk. Anaerobe 16: 101-105.
6. Arroyo, R., Martin, V., Maldonado, A., Jimenez, E., Fernández, L. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2010. Treatment of infectious mastitis during lactation: antibiotics versus oral administration of lactobacilli isolated from breast milk. Clinical Infectious Diseases 50: 1551-1558.
7. Barbosa-Cesnik, C., Schwartz, K. and Foxman, B., 2003. Lactation mastitis. The Journal of the American Medical Association 289: 1609-1612.
8. Beasley, S.S. and Saris, P.E., 2004. Nisin-producing Lactococcus lactis strains isolated from human milk. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70: 5051-5053.
9. Beischer, N., Mackay, E.V. and Colditz, P.B., 1997. Obstetrics and the newborn. Saunders, London, UK.
10. Bertotto, A., Castellucci, G., Scalise, F., Tognellini, R. and Vaccaro, R., 1991. 'Memory' T cells in human breast milk. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 80: 98-99.
11. Bingen, E., Denamur, E., Lambert-Zechovsky, N., Aujard, Y., Brahimi, N., Geslin, P. and Elion, J., 1992. Analysis of DNA restriction fragment length polymorphism extends the evidence for breast milk transmission in Streptococcus agalactiae late-onset neonatal infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 165: 569-573.
12. Blander, J.M. and Medzhitov, R., 2004. Regulation of phagosome maturation by signals from Toll-like receptors. Science 304: 1014-1018.
13. Bode, L., 2012. Human milk oligosaccharides: every baby needs a sugar mama. Glycobiology, in press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/glycob/cws074.
14. Boehm, G. and Moro, G., 2008. Structural and functional aspects of prebiotics used in infant nutrition. Journal of Nutrition 138: 1818S-1828S.
15. Butts, C.L., Shukair, S.A., Duncan, K.M., Bowers, E., Horn, C., Belyavskaya, E., Tonelli, L. and Sternberg, E.M., 2007. Progesterone inhibits mature rat dendritic cells in a receptor-mediated fashion. International Immunology 19: 287-296.
16. Capone, K.A., Dowd, S.E., Stamatas, G.N. and Nikolovski, J., 2011. Diversity of the human skin microbiome early in life. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 131: 2026-2032.
17. Carbone, F., Procaccini, C., De Rosa, V., Alviggi, C., De Placido, G., Kramer, D., Longobardi, S. and Matarese, G., 2010. Divergent immunomodulatory effects of recombinant and urinary-derived FSH, LH, and hCG on human CD4+ T cells. Journal of Reproductive Immunology 85: 172-179.
18. Cephas, K.D., Kim, J., Mathai, R.A., Barry, K.A., Dowd, S.E., Meline, B.S. and Swanson, K.S., 2011. Comparative analysis of salivary bacterial microbiome diversity in edentulous infants and their mothers or primary care givers using pyrosequencing. PloS ONE 6: e23503.
19. Chantry, C.J., Howard, C.R. and Auinger, P., 2006. Full breastfeeding duration and associated decrease in respiratory tract infection in US children. Pediatrics 117: 425-432.
20. Charoenphandhu, N., Nakkrasae, L.I., Kraidith, K., Teerapornpuntakit, J., Thongchote, K., Thongon, N. and Krishnamra, N., 2009. Two-step stimulation of intestinal Ca(2+) absorption during lactation by long-term prolactin exposure and suckling-induced prolactin surge. American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology and Metabolism 297: E609-E619.
21. Collado, M.C., Delgado, S., Maldonado, A. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2009. Assessment of the bacterial diversity of breast milk of healthy women by quantitative real-time PCR. Letters in Applied Microbiology 48: 523-528.
22. Collado, M.C., Laitinen, K., Salminen, S. and Isolauri, E., 2012. Maternal weight and excessive weight gain during pregnancy modify the immunomodulatory potential of breast milk. Pediatric Research 72: 77-85.
23. Contreras, G.A. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2011. Mastitis: comparative etiology and epidemiology. Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia 16: 339-356.
24. Costello, E.K., Lauber, C.L., Hamady, M., Fierer, N., Gordon, J.I. and Knight, R., 2009. Bacterial community variation in human body habitats across space and time. Science 326: 1694-1697.
25. Delgado, S., Arroyo, R., Jimenez, E., Marin, M.L., Del Campo, R., Fernández, L. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2009. Staphylococcus epidermidis strains isolated from breast milk of women suffering infectious mastitis: potential virulence traits and resistance to antibiotics. BMC Microbiology 9: 82.
26. Delves, P.J., Martin, S.J., Burton, D.R., Roitt, I.M., 2011. Roitt's essential immunology. Wiley Blackwell, Hoboken, NY, USA.
27. Donnet-Hughes, A., Perez, P.F., Dore, J., Leclerc, M., Levenez, F., Benyacoub, J., Serrant, P., Segura-Roggero, I. and Schiffrin, E.J., 2010. Potential role of the intestinal microbiota of the mother in neonatal immune education. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 69: 407-415.
28. Duijts, L., Jaddoe, V.W., Hofman, A. and Moll, H.A., 2010. Prolonged and exclusive breastfeeding reduces the risk of infectious diseases in infancy. Pediatrics 126: e18-25.
29. El-Mohandes, A.E., Schatz, V., Keiser, J.F. and Jackson, B.J., 1993. Bacterial contaminants of collected and frozen human milk used in an intensive care nursery. American Journal of Infection Control 21: 226-230.
30. Fanaro, S., Chierici, R., Guerrini, P. and Vigi, V., 2003. Intestinal microflora in early infancy: composition and development. Acta Paediatrica 92 Suppl. s442: 48-55.
31. Fanning, S., Hall, L. and Van Sinderen, D., 2012. Bifidobacterium breve UCC2003 surface exopolysaccharide production is a beneficial trait mediating commensal-host interaction through immune modulation and pathogen protection. Gut Microbes 3: 420-425.
32. Fernández, L., Marín, M.L., Langa, S., Martín, R., Reviriego, C., Fernández, A., Olivares, M., Xaus, J. and Rodríguez, J.M., 2004. A novel genetic label for detection of specific probiotic lactic acid bacteria. Food Science and Technology 10: 101-108.
33. Foxman, B., D'Arcy, H., Gillespie, B., Bobo, J.K. and Schwartz, K., 2002. Lactation mastitis: occurrence and medical management among 946 breastfeeding women in the United States. American Journal of Epidemiology 155: 103-114.
34. Frank, J.A., Reich, C.I., Sharma, S., Weisbaum, J.S., Wilson, B.A. and Olsen, G.J., 2008. Critical evaluation of two primers commonly used for amplification of bacterial 16S rRNA genes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74: 2461-2470.
35. Gao, Z., Tseng, C.H., Pei, Z. and Blaser, M.J., 2007. Molecular analysis of human forearm superficial skin bacterial biota. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 104: 2927-2932.
36. Gavin, A. and Ostovar, K., 1977. Microbiological characterization of human milk. Journal of Food Protection 40: 614-616.
37. Gillman, M.W., Rifas-Shiman, S.L., Camargo Jr., C.A., Berkey, C.S., Frazier, A.L., Rockett, H.R., Field, A.E. and Colditz, G.A., 2001. Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants. The Journal of the American Medical Association 285: 2461-2467.
38. Gouon-Evans, V., Rothenberg, M.E. and Pollard, J.W., 2000. Postnatal mammary gland development requires macrophages and eosinophils. Development 127: 2269-2282.
39. Greer, F.R., Sicherer, S.H. and Burks, A.W., 2008. Effects of early nutritional interventions on the development of atopic disease in infants and children: the role of maternal dietary restriction, breastfeeding, timing of introduction of complementary foods, and hydrolyzed formulas. Pediatrics 121: 183-191.
40. Grice, E.A., Kong, H.H., Conlan, S., Deming, C.B., Davis, J., Young, A.C., Bouffard, G.G., Blakesley, R.W., Murray, P.R., Green, E.D., Turner, M.L. and Segre, J.A., 2009. Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome. Science 324: 1190-1192.
41. Gueimonde, M., Laitinen, K., Salminen, S. and Isolauri, E., 2007. Breast milk: a source of bifidobacteria for infant gut development and maturation? Neonatology 92: 64-66.
42. Heikkila, M.P. and Saris, P.E., 2003. Inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus by the commensal bacteria of human milk. Journal of Applied Microbiology 95: 471-478.
43. Huang, S., Yang, F., Zeng, X., Chen, J., Li, R., Wen, T., Li, C., Wei, W., Liu, J., Chen, L., Davis, C. and Xu, J., 2011. Preliminary characterization of the oral microbiota of Chinese adults with and without gingivitis. BMC Oral Health 11: 33.
44. Hunt, K.M., Foster, J.A., Forney, L.J., Schutte, U.M., Beck, D.L., Abdo, Z., Fox, L.K., Williams, J.E., McGuire, M.K. and McGuire, M.A., 2011. Characterization of the diversity and temporal stability of bacterial communities in human milk. PloS ONE 6: e21313.
45. Inglis, G.D., Thomas, M.C., Thomas, D.K., Kalmokoff, M.L., Brooks, S.P. and Selinger, L.B., 2012. Molecular methods to measure intestinal bacteria: a review. Journal of AOAC International 95: 5-23.
46. Ip, S., Chung, M., Raman, G., Chew, P., Magula, N., DeVine, D., Trikalinos, T. and Lau, J., 2007. Breastfeeding and maternal and infant health outcomes in developed countries. Evidence Report/Technology Assessesment 153: 1-186.
47. Ip, S., Chung, M., Raman, G., Trikalinos, T.A. and Lau, J., 2009. A summary of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality's evidence report on breastfeeding in developed countries. Breastfeeding Medicine 4 Suppl. 1: S17-S30.
48. Jeurink, P.V., Rijnierse, A., Martín, R., Garssen, J. and Knippels, L.M., 2012. Difficulties in describing allergic disease modulation by pre-, pro- and synbiotics. Current Pharmaceutical Design 18: 2369-2374.
49. Jimenez, E., Delgado, S., Fernández, L., Garcia, N., Albujar, M., Gomez, A. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2008a. Assessment of the bacterial diversity of human colostrum and screening of staphylococcal and enterococcal populations for potential virulence factors. Research in Microbiology 159: 595-601.
50. Jiménez, E., Delgado, S., Maldonado, A., Arroyo, R., Albujar, M., Garcia, N., Jariod, M., Fernández, L., Gomez, A. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2008b. Staphylococcus epidermidis: a differential trait of the fecal microbiota of breast-fed infants. BMC Microbiology 8: 143.
51. Jiménez, E., Espinosa, I., Arroyo, R., Fernández, L. and Rodríguez, J.M., 2012. Metagenomic analysis of human milk. In: Book of abstracts, 3rd TNO Beneficial Microbes Conference, 26-28 March 2012, Noordwijkerhout, the Netherlands, p. 76.
52. Jiménez, E., Fernández, L., Maldonado, A., Martín, R., Olivares, M., Xaus, J. and Rodríguez, J.M., 2008c. Oral administration of Lactobacillus strains isolated from breast milk as an alternative for the treatment of infectious mastitis during lactation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74: 4650-4655.
53. Klein, B.Y., Tamir, H. and Welch, M.G., 2011. PI3K/Akt responses to oxytocin stimulation in Caco2BB gut cells. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 112: 3216-3226.
54. Kosaka, N., Izumi, H., Sekine, K. and Ochiya, T., 2010. microRNA as a new immune-regulatory agent in breast milk. Silence 1: 7.
55. Lamberti, L.M., Fischer Walker, C.L., Noiman, A., Victora, C. and Black, R.E., 2011. Breastfeeding and the risk for diarrhea morbidity and mortality. BMC Public Health 11 Suppl. 3: S15.
56. Lane, J.A., Mehra, R.K., Carrington, S.D. and Hickey, R.M., 2011. Development of biosensor-based assays to identify anti-infective oligosaccharides. Analytical Biochemistry 410: 200-205.
57. Langa, S., 2006. Interactions between lactic acid bacteria, intestinal epithelial cells and immune cells. Development of in vitro models. PhD Thesis, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
58. Le Thomas, I., Mariani-Kurkdjian, P., Collignon, A., Gravet, A., Clermont, O., Brahimi, N., Gaudelus, J., Aujard, Y., Navarro, J., Beaufils, F. and Bingen, E., 2001. Breast milk transmission of a Panton-Valentine leukocidin-producing Staphylococcus aureus strain causing infantile pneumonia. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 39: 728-729.
59. Ling, Z., Kong, J., Liu, F., Zhu, H., Chen, X., Wang, Y., Li, L., Nelson, K.E., Xia, Y. and Xiang, C., 2010. Molecular analysis of the diversity of vaginal microbiota associated with bacterial vaginosis. BMC Genomics 11: 488.
60. Lopez-Alarcon, M., Villalpando, S. and Fajardo, A., 1997. Breast-feeding lowers the frequency and duration of acute respiratory infection and diarrhea in infants under six months of age. Journal of Nutrition 127: 436-443.
61. Ma, B., Forney, L.J. and Ravel, J., 2012. Vaginal microbiome: rethinking health and disease. Annual Review of Microbiology 66: 371-389.
62. Macpherson, A.J. and Uhr, T., 2004. Induction of protective IgA by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria. Science 303: 1662-1665.
63. Makino, H., Kushiro, A., Ishikawa, E., Muylaert, D., Kubota, H., Sakai, T., Oishi, K., Martín, R., Ben Amor, K., Oozeer, R., Knol, J. and Tanaka, R., 2011. Transmission of intestinal Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum strains from mother to infant, determined by multilocus sequencing typing and amplified fragment length polymorphism. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77: 6788-6793.
64. Maldonado, J., Canabate, F., Sempere, L., Vela, F., Sanchez, A.R., Narbona, E., Lopez-Huertas, E., Geerlings, A., Valero, A.D., Olivares, M. and Lara-Villoslada, F., 2012. Human milk probiotic Lactobacillus fermentum CECT5716 reduces the incidence of gastrointestinal and upper respiratory tract infections in infants. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 54: 55-61.
65. Martín, R., Heilig, G.H., Zoetendal, E.G., Smidt, H. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2007a. Diversity of the Lactobacillus group in breast milk and vagina of healthy women and potential role in the colonization of the infant gut. Journal of Applied Microbiology 103: 2638-2644.
66. Martín, R., Heilig, H.G., Zoetendal, E.G., Jimenez, E., Fernandez, L., Smidt, H. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2007b. Cultivation-independent assessment of the bacterial diversity of breast milk among healthy women. Research in Microbiology 158: 31-37.
67. Martín, R., Jimenez, E., Heilig, H., Fernandez, L., Marin, M.L., Zoetendal, E.G. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2009. Isolation of bifidobacteria from breast milk and assessment of the bifidobacterial population by PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and quantitative real-time PCR. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 75: 965-969.
68. Martín, R., Jimenez, E., Olivares, M., Marin, M.L., Fernandez, L., Xaus, J. and Rodriguez, J.M., 2006. Lactobacillus salivarius CECT 5713, a potential probiotic strain isolated from infant feces and breast milk of a mother-child pair. International Journal of Food Microbiology 112: 35-43.
69. Martín, R., Langa, S., Reviriego, C., Jiménez, E., Marín, M.L., Xaus, J., Fernández, L. and Rodríguez, J.M., 2003. Human milk is a source of lactic acid bacteria for the infant gut. The Journal of Pediatrics 143: 754-758.
70. Martín, R., Langa, S., Reviriego, C., Jiménez, E., Marín, M.L., Olivares, M., Boza, J., Jiménez, J., Fernández, L., Xaus, J. and Rodríguez, J.M., 2004. The commensal microflora of human milk: new perspectives for food bacteriotherapy and probiotics. Trends in Food Science and Technology 15: 121-127.
71. Martin, V., 2011. Interactions between the microbiota of human milk and human immonodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). PhD Thesis, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
72. Martin, V., Maldonado-Barragan, A., Moles, L., Rodriguez-Banos, M., Campo, R.D., Fernandez, L., Rodriguez, J.M. and Jimenez, E., 2012. Sharing of bacterial strains between breast milk and infant feces. Journal of Human Lactation 28: 36-44.
73. Martin, V., Maldonado, A., Fernandez, L., Rodriguez, J.M. and Connor, R.I., 2010. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by lactic acid bacteria from human breastmilk. Breastfeeding Medicine 5: 153-158.
74. Martin, V., Manes-Lazaro, R., Rodriguez, J.M. and Maldonado-Barragan, A., 2011. Streptococcus lactarius sp. nov., isolated from breast milk of healthy women. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 61: 1048-1052.
75. Matsumiya, Y., Kato, N., Watanabe, K. and Kato, H., 2002. Molecular epidemiological study of vertical transmission of vaginal Lactobacillus species from mothers to newborn infants in Japanese, by arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy 8: 43-49.
76. Matsunaga, M., Konagaya, T., Nogimori, T., Yoneda, M., Kasugai, K., Ohira, H. and Kaneko, H., 2009. Inhibitory effect of oxytocin on accelerated colonic motility induced by water-avoidance stress in rats. Neurogastroenterology and Motility 21: 856-e859.
77. McLaughlin, R.W., Vali, H., Lau, P.C., Palfree, R.G., De Ciccio, A., Sirois, M., Ahmad, D., Villemur, R., Desrosiers, M. and Chan, E.C., 2002. Are there naturally occurring pleomorphic bacteria in the blood of healthy humans? Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40: 4771-4775.
78. Nasidze, I., Li, J., Quinque, D., Tang, K. and Stoneking, M., 2009. Global diversity in the human salivary microbiome. Genome Research 19: 636-643.
79. Nikkari, S., McLaughlin, I.J., Bi, W., Dodge, D.E. and Relman, D.A., 2001. Does blood of healthy subjects contain bacterial ribosomal DNA? Journal of Clinical Microbiology 39: 1956-1959.
80. Nishimura, T., Suzue, J. and Kaji, H., 2009. Breastfeeding reduces the severity of respiratory syncytial virus infection among young infants: a multi-center prospective study. Pediatrics International 51: 812-816.
81. Ohlsson, B., Truedsson, M., Djerf, P. and Sundler, F., 2006. Oxytocin is expressed throughout the human gastrointestinal tract. Regulatory Peptides 135: 7-11.
82. Owen, C.G., Martin, R.M., Whincup, P.H., Smith, G.D. and Cook, D.G., 2006. Does breastfeeding influence risk of type 2 diabetes in later life? A quantitative analysis of published evidence. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 84: 1043-1054.
83. Penttila, I.A., 2010. Milk-derived transforming growth factor-ß and the infant immune response. The Journal of Pediatrics 156: S21-S25.
84. Perez-Cano, F.J., Gonzalez-Castro, A., Castellote, C., Franch, A. and Castell, M., 2010. Influence of breast milk polyamines on suckling rat immune system maturation. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 34: 210-218.
85. Perez, P.F., Dore, J., Leclerc, M., Levenez, F., Benyacoub, J., Serrant, P., Segura-Roggero, I., Schiffrin, E.J. and Donnet-Hughes, A., 2007. Bacterial imprinting of the neonatal immune system: lessons from maternal cells? Pediatrics 119: e724-732.
86. Pflughoeft, K.J. and Versalovic, J., 2012. Human microbiome in health and disease. Annual Review of Pathology 7: 99-122.
87. Quigley, M.A., Kelly, Y.J. and Sacker, A., 2007. Breastfeeding and hospitalization for diarrheal and respiratory infection in the United Kingdom Millennium Cohort Study. Pediatrics 119: e837-842.
88. Ramsay, D.T., Kent, J.C., Owens, R.A. and Hartmann, P.E., 2004. Ultrasound imaging of milk ejection in the breast of lactating women. Pediatrics 113: 361-367.
89. Ravel, J., Gajer, P., Abdo, Z., Schneider, G.M., Koenig, S.S., McCulle, S.L., Karlebach, S., Gorle, R., Russell, J., Tacket, C.O., Brotman, R.M., Davis, C.C., Ault, K., Peralta, L. and Forney, L.J., 2011. Vaginal microbiome of reproductive-age women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 108 Suppl. 1: 4680-4687.
90. Renz, H., Brandtzaeg, P. and Hornef, M., 2011. The impact of perinatal immune development on mucosal homeostasis and chronic inflammation. Nature Reviews Immunology 12: 9-23.
91. Rescigno, M., Urbano, M., Valzasina, B., Francolini, M., Rotta, G., Bonasio, R., Granucci, F., Kraehenbuhl, J.-P. and Ricciardi-Castagnoli, P., 2001. Dendritic cells express tight junction proteins and penetrate gut epithelial monolayers to sample bacteria. Nature Immunology 2: 361-367.
92. Rijnierse, A., Jeurink, P.V., Van Esch, B.C., Garssen, J. and Knippels, L.M., 2011. Food-derived oligosaccharides exhibit pharmaceutical properties. European Journal of Pharmacology 668 Suppl. 1: S117-123.
93. Santos, S.J., Aupperlee, M.D., Xie, J., Durairaj, S., Miksicek, R., Conrad, S.E., Leipprandt, J.R., Tan, Y.S., Schwartz, R.C. and Haslam, S.Z., 2009. Progesterone receptor A-regulated gene expression in mammary organoid cultures. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 115: 161-172.
94. Scholtens, P., Oozeer, R., Martin, R., Ben Amor, K. and Knol, J., 2012. The early settlers: intestinal microbiology in early life. Annual Reviews of Food Science and Technology 3: 425-447.
95. Sekirov, I., Russell, S.L., Antunes, L.C. and Finlay, B.B., 2010. Gut microbiota in health and disease. Physiological Reviews 90: 859-904.
96. Sim, K., Cox, M.J., Wopereis, H., Martin, R., Knol, J., Li, M.S., Cookson, W.O., Moffatt, M.F. and Kroll, J.S., 2012. Improved detection of bifidobacteria with optimised 16S rRNA-gene based pyrosequencing. PloS ONE 7: e32543.
97. Sinkiewicz, G. and Nordstrom, E.A., 2005. Occurrence of Lactobacillus reuteri, lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in human breast milk. Pediatric Research 58: 415.
98. Smith, K., McCoy, K.D. and Macpherson, A.J., 2007. Use of axenic animals in studying the adaptation of mammals to their commensal intestinal microbiota. Seminars in Immunology 19: 59-69.
99. Solis, G., De Los Reyes-Gavilan, C.G., Fernandez, N., Margolles, A. and Gueimonde, M., 2010. Establishment and development of lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria microbiota in breast-milk and the infant gut. Anaerobe 16: 307-310.
100. Stuebe, A., 2009. The risks of not breastfeeding for mothers and infants. Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology 2: 222-231.
101. Sun, Y., Cai, J., Ma, F., Lü, P., Huang, H. and Zhou, J., 2012. miR-155 mediates suppressive effect of progesterone on TLR3, TLR4-triggered immune response. Immunology Letters 146: 25-30.
102. Thurl, S., Munzert, M., Henker, J., Boehm, G., Muller-Werner, B., Jelinek, J. and Stahl, B., 2010. Variation of human milk oligosaccharides in relation to milk groups and lactational periods. British Journal of Nutrition 104: 1261-1271.
103. Turnbaugh, P.J., Hamady, M., Yatsunenko, T., Cantarel, B.L., Duncan, A., Ley, R.E., Sogin, M.L., Jones, W.J., Roe, B.A., Affourtit, J.P., Egholm, M., Henrissat, B., Heath, A.C., Knight, R. and Gordon, J.I., 2009. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Nature 457: 480-484.
104. Turroni, F., Foroni, E., Serafini, F., Viappiani, A., Montanini, B., Bottacini, F., Ferrarini, A., Bacchini, P.L., Rota, C., Delledonne, M., Ottonello, S., Van Sinderen, D. and Ventura, M., 2011. Ability of Bifidobacterium breve to grow on different types of milk: exploring the metabolism of milk through genome analysis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77: 7408-7417.
105. Van 't Land, B., Boehm, G. and Garssen, J., 2010. Breast milk: components with immune modulating potential and their possible role in immune mediated disease resistance. In: Watson, R.R., Zibadi, S. and Preedy, V.R. (eds.) Dietary components and immune function. Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp. 25-41.
106. Vankerckhoven, V.V., Van Autgaerden, T., Huys, G., Vancanneyt, M., Swings, J. and Goossens, H., 2004. Establishment of the PROSAFE collection of probiotic and human lactic acid bacteria. Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease 16: 131-136.
107. Vazquez-Torres, A., Jones-Carson, J., Baumler, A.J., Falkow, S., Valdivia, R., Brown, W., Le, M., Berggren, R., Parks, W.T. and Fang, F.C., 1999. Extraintestinal dissemination of Salmonella by CD18-expressing phagocytes. Nature 401: 804-808.
108. Von Kries, R., Koletzko, B., Sauerwald, T., Von Mutius, E., Barnert, D., Grunert, V. and Von Voss, H., 1999. Breast feeding and obesity: cross sectional study. BMJ 319: 147-150.
109. Walker, A., 2010. Breast milk as the gold standard for protective nutrients. The Journal of Pediatrics 156: S3-S7.
110. Walker, M., 2008. Conquering common breast-feeding problems. Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing 22: 267-274.
111. West, P.A., Hewitt, J.H. and Murphy, O.M., 1979. The influence of methods of collection and storage on the bacteriology of human milk. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 46: 269-277.
112. Wright, K.C. and Feeney, A.M., 1998. The bacteriological screening of donated human milk: laboratory experience of British Paediatric Association's published guidelines. Journal of Infection 36: 23-27.
113. Xiao, M., Xu, P., Zhao, J., Wang, Z., Zuo, F., Zhang, J., Ren, F., Li, P., Chen, S. and Ma, H., 2011. Oxidative stress-related responses of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum BBMN68 at the proteomic level after exposure to oxygen. Microbiology 157: 1573-1588.
114. Yoshinaga, K., 2008. Review of factors essential for blastocyst implantation for their modulating effects on the maternal immune system. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology 19: 161-169.
115. Zhou, Q., Li, M., Wang, X., Li, Q., Wang, T., Zhu, Q., Zhou, X., Gao, X. and Li, X., 2012. Immune-related microRNAs are abundant in breast milk exosomes. International Journal of Biological Sciences 8: 118-123.
116. Zoetendal, E.G., Collier, C.T., Koike, S., Mackie, R.I. and Gaskins, H.R., 2004. Molecular ecological analysis of the gastrointestinal microbiota: a review. The Journal of Nutrition 134: 465-472.