Biased Cognition in Psychosis

Journal of Experimental Psychopathology

Volumn 3, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 514-536

  Savulich, George ^a   Shergill, Sukhwinder ^a   Yiend, Jenny ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

attention; auditory hallucination; cognitive bias; delusion; information processing; interpretation; jumping to conclusions; psychosis; training

Indexed keywords

EID: 84875088948     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20438087     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5127/jep.016711     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. Aghotor J., Pfueller U., Moritz S., Weisbrod M., & Roesch-Ely D. (2010). Metacognitive training for patients with schizophrenia (MCT): Feasibility and preliminary evidence for its efficacy. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41, 207-211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.01.004
2. Amir N., Beard C., Burns M., & Bomyea K. (2009). Attention modification program in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 28-33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0012589
3. Amir N., Coles M. E., & Foa E. B. (2002). Automatic and strategic activation and inhibition of threat-relevant information in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 645-655. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1020309326976
4. Bar-Haim Y. (2010). Research review: Attention bias modification (ABM): A novel treatment for anxiety disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 5 1, 859-870. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02251.x
5. Bar-Haim Y., Lamy D., Pergamin L., Bakermans-Kranenburg M. J., & van IJzendoorn M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and non- anxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 1-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1
6. Beard C., & Amir N. (2009). Interpretation in social anxiety: When meaning precedes ambiguity. Cognitive Therapy Research, 33, 406-415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9235-0
7. Beck A. T., & Clark D. A. (1997). An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 49-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(96)00069-1
8. Beck A., Rush J., Shaw B., & Emery G. (Eds) (1979). Cognitive Therapy for Depression. New York: Guilford.
9. Bentall R. P. (1990). The symptoms and syndromes of psychosis: Or why you can't play 20 questions with the concept of schizophrenia and hope to win. In Bentall R.P. (Ed.), Reconstructing Schizophrenia (pp. 23-60). London: Routledge.
10. Bentall R. P., Corcoran R., Howard R., Blackwood N., & Kinderman P. (2001). Persecutory delusions: A review and theoretical integration. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 1143-1192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(01)00106-4
11. Bentall R. P., & Kaney S. (1989). Emotional Stroop performance predicts disorganization in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 77, 141-149.
12. Bentall R. P., Kinderman P., & Kaney S. (1994). The self, attributional processes and abnormal beliefs: towards a model of persecutory delusions. Behaviour Research Therapy, 32, 331-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90131-7
13. Birchwood M., Meaden A., Trower P., Gilbert P., & Plaistow J. (2000). The power and omnipotence of voices: subordination and entrapment by voices and significant others. Psychological Medicine, 30, 337-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291799001828
14. Blackwell S. E., & Holmes E. A. (2010). Modifying interpretation and imagination in clinical depression: A single case series using cognitive bias modification. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 338-350. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/acp.1680
15. Blackwood N. J., Howard R. J., Bentall R. P., & Murray R. M. (2001). Cognitive neuropsychiatric models of persecutory delusions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 527-539. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.4.527
16. Blanchette I., & Richards A. (2003). Anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguous stimuli: Beyond the emotion-congruent effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 294-309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.132.2.294
17. Blanchette I., & Richards A. (2010). The influence of affect on higher level cognition: A review of research on interpretation, judgement, decision making and reasoning. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 561-595. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699930903132496
18. Broome M. R., Johns I. C., Valli I., Woolley J. B., Tabraham P., Brett C., … McGuire P. K. (2007). Delusion formation and reasoning biases in those at clinical high risk for psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 191, s38-s42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.191.51.s38
19. Buchy L., Woodward T. S., & Liotti M. (2007). A cognitive bias against disconfirmatory evidence (BADE) is associated with schizotypal traits. Schizophrenia Research, 90, 334-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2006.11.012
20. Buckley T. C., Blanchard E. B., & Neill W. T. (2000). Information processing and PTSD: A review of the empirical literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 1041-10655. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00030-6
21. Calvo M. G., Eysenck M. W., & Estevez A. (1994). Ego-threat interpretive bias in test anxiety: On-line inferences. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 127-146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699939408408932
22. Chadwick P., & Birchwood M. (1994). The omnipotence of voices: A cognitive approach to auditory hallucinations. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 190-201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.164.2.190
23. Charlton B. G., & McClelland H. A. (1999). Theory of mind and the delusional disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 187, 380-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199906000-00009
24. Chin J., Hayward M., & Drinnan A. (2009). Relating to voices: exploring the relevance of this concept to people who hear voices. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 82, 1-17.
25. Clark D. M. (1988). A cognitive model of panic attacks. In Rachman S., & Maser J. (Eds) Panic: Psychological Perspective. Hove: Erlbaum. Pp 71-90.
26. Clark D. M., & McManus F. (2002). Information processing in social phobia. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 92-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01296-3
27. Close H., & Garety P. (1998). Cognitive assessment of voices: Further development in understanding the emotional impact of voices. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 173-188. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1998.tb01292.x
28. Colbert S. M., & Peters E. R. (2002). Need for closure and jumping to conclusions in delusion-prone individuals. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 170, 27-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-200201000-00007
29. Cooper M. (1997). Bias in interpretation of ambiguous scenarios in eating disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 619-626. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00021-1
30. Csipke E., & Kinderman P. (2006). A longitudinal investigation of beliefs about voices. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 34, 365-369. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1352465805002675
31. Dayberry D., & Reed M. A. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 225-236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.111.2.225
32. Dearing K. F., & Gotlib I. H. (2009). Interpretation of ambiguous information for girls at risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 79-91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9259-z
33. Dudley R. E. J., John C. H., Young A. W., & Over D. E. (1997a). Normal and abnormal reasoning in people with delusions. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 243-258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1997.tb01410.x
34. Dudley R. E. J., John C. H., Young A. W., & Over D. E. (1997b). The effect of self- referent material on the reasoning of people with delusions. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 575-584. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1997.tb01262.x
35. Ellet L., Freeman D., & Garety P. A. (2008). The psychological effect of an urban environment on individuals with persecutory ideation: The Camberwell Walk Study. Schizophrenia Research, 99, 77-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2007.10.027
36. Eysenk M. W. (Ed) (1992). Anxiety: The Cognitive Perspective. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
37. Eysenck M. W., Mogg K., May J., Richards A., & Mathews A. (1991). Bias in interpretation of ambiguous sentences related to threat in anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 144-150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.100.2.144
38. Falcone A. M., Wiffen B., O'Connor J., Kolliakou A., Joseph C., Taylor H., … Freeman D. (2010). Jumping to conclusions and psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 117, 294. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2010.02.490
39. Fear C. F., Sharp H., & Healy D. (1996). Cognitive processes in delusional disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 61-67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.168.1.61
40. Fine C., Gardner M., Craigie J., & Gold I. (2007). Hopping, skipping or jumping to conclusions? Clarifying the role of the JTC bias in delusions. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 12, 46-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546800600750597
41. Fox E. (1993). Attentional bias in anxiety: a defective inhibition hypothesis. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 165-195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699939408408934
42. Fox E. (1994). Attentional bias in anxiety. Processing emotional facial expressions: the role of anxiety and awareness. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioural Neuroscience, 2, 52-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/CABN.2.1.52
43. Fox E. (2004). Maintenance or capture of attention in anxiety-related biases. In Yiend J. (Ed) Emotion, Cognition and Psychopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 85-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511521263.006
44. Fox E., Lester V., Russo R., Bowles R. J., Pichler A., & Dutton K. (2000). Facial expressions of emotion: Are angry faces detected more efficiently? Cognition and Emotion, 12, 61-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/026999300378996
45. Fox E., Mathews A., Calder A. J., & Yiend J. (2007). Anxiety and Sensitivity to Gaze Direction in Emotionally Expressive Faces. Emotion, 7, 478-486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.3.478
46. Fox E., Russo R., Bowles R., & Dutton K. (2001). Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 681-700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.681
47. Freeman D. (2007). Suspicious minds: The psychology of persecutory delusions. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 425-457. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.10.004
48. Freeman D., & Garety P. A. (2000). Comments on the content of persecutory delusions: Does the definition need clarification? British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39, 407-414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/014466500163400
49. Freeman D., Garety P. A., Kuipers E., Fowler D., & Bebbington P. E. (2002). A cognitive model of persecutory delusions. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 331-347. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/014466502760387461
50. Freeman D., Garety P. A., & Phillips M. L. (2000). An examination of hypervigilance for external threat in individuals with generalised anxiety disorder and individuals with persecutory delusions using visual scan paths. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53A, 549-567. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/027249800390600
51. Freeman D., Pugh K., & Garety P. A. (2008). Jumping to conclusions and paranoid ideation in the general population. Schizophrenia Research, 102, 254-260.
52. Garety P. A., & Freeman D. (1999). Cognitive approaches to delusions: A critical review of theories and evidence. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 113-154.
53. Garety P. A., & Freeman D. (1999). Cognitive approaches to delusions: A critical review of theories and evidence. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 113-154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/014466599162700
54. Garety P. A., Freeman D., Jolley S., Dunn G., Bebbington P., Fowler D., … Dudley R. (2005). Reasoning, emotions, and delusional conviction in psychosis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 373-384. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.114.3.373
55. Garety P. A., Hemsley D., & Wessely S. (1991). Reasoning in deluded schizophrenic and paranoid patients: Biases in performance on a probabilistic inference task. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179, 194-201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199104000-00003
56. Gopal Y. V., & Variend H. (2005). First-episode schizophrenia: Review of cognitive deficits and cognitive remediation. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 11, 38-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/apt.11.1.38
57. Gotlib I. H., Kasch K. L., Traill S., Joorman J., Arnow B. A., & Jonhson S. L. (2004). Coherence and specificity of information-processing biases in depression and social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 127-135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.113.1.121
58. Green M. J., & Phillips M. (2004). Social threat perception and the evolution of paranoia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews, 28, 333-342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.006
59. Green M. J., Williams L. M., & Davidson D. J. (2001). Processing of threat related affect is delayed in delusion-prone individuals. British Journal of Psychology, 40, 157-165.
60. Green M. J., Williams L. M., & Davidson D. (2003). Visual scanpaths to threat-related faces in deluded schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 119, 271-285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(03)00129-X
61. Grey S., & Mathews A. (2000). Effects of training on interpretation of emotional ambiguity. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 1143-1162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724980050156335
62. Hadwin J. A., & Field A. P. (Eds) (2010). Information Processing Biases and Anxiety: A Developmental Perspective. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
63. Hansen C. H., & Hansen R. D. (1988). Finding the face in the crowd: an anger superiority effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 917-924. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.917
64. Harrington L., Langdon R., Siegert R. J., & McClure J. (2005). Schizophrenia, theory of mind, and persecutory delusions. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 10, 87-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546800444000056
65. Hayes S., & Hirsch C. (2007). Information processing biases in generalized anxiety disorder. Psychiatry, 6, 176-182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mppsy.2007.02.003
66. Hayes S., Hirsch C. R., Krebs G., & Mathews A. (2010). The effects of modifying interpretation bias on worry in generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research Therapy, 48, 171-178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.10.006
67. Hirsch C. R., & Clark D. M. (2004). Information-processing bias in social phobia. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 799-825. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.07.005
68. Hirsch C. R., & Mathews A. (1997). Interpretive inferences when reading about emotional events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 1123-1132.
69. Holmes E. A., Mathews A., Dalgleish T., & Mackintosh B. (2006). Positive interpretation training: effects of mental imagery versus verbal training on positive mood. Behaviour Therapy, 37, 237-247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.02.002
70. Hoppitt L., Mathews A., Yiend J., & Mackintosh B. (2010). Cognitive mechanisms underlying the emotional effects of bias modification. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 312-325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/acp.1678
71. Huq S., Garety P., & Hemsley D. (1988). Probabilistic judgments in deluded and non-deluded subjects. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 40, 801-812.
72. Jenner J., Rutten S., Beuckens J., Boonstra N., & Sytema S. (2008). Positive and useful auditory vocal hallucinations: prevalence, characteristics, attributions, and implications for treatment. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 118, 238-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01226.x
73. Kaney S., & Bentall R. P. (1989). Persecutory delusions and attributional style. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 62, 191-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1989.tb02826.x
74. Kay S. R., Fiszbein A., & Opler L. A. (1987). The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13, 261-276.
75. Kerstan A. (2009). Evaluation des Metakognitiven Trainings bei chronisch schizophren erkrankten Menschen. Hamburg: University of Hamburg.
76. Kinderman P., & Bentall R. P. (1997). Causal attributions in paranoia and depression: Internal, personal, and situational attributions for negative events. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 341-345. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.106.2.341
77. Koster E. H. W., Crombez G., Verschuere B., & De Houwer J. (2004). Selective attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm: differentiating vigilance and difficulty to disengage. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1183-1192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.001
78. Koster E. H. W., Fox E., & MacLeod C. (2009). Introduction to the special section on cognitive bias modification in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 1-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014379
79. Lawson C., & MacLeod C. (1999). Depression and the interpretation of ambiguity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 463-474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00131-4
80. Leafhead K. M., Young A. W., & Szulecka T. K. (1996). Delusions demand attention. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 1, 5-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/135468096396668
81. Lee M., & Shafran R. (2004). Information processing biases in eating disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 215-238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2003.10.004
82. Lincoln T., Lange J., Burau J., Exner C., & Moritz S. (2009). The effect of state anxiety on paranoid ideation and jumping to conclusions. An experimental investigation. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 36, 1140-1148. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbp029
83. Lincoln T. M., Mehl S., Exner C., Lindenmeyer J., & Rief W. (2010). Attributional style and persecutory delusions. Evidence for an event independent and state specific external-personal attribution bias for social situations. Cognitive Therapy Research, 34, 297-302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9284-4
84. Lincoln T. M., Peters N., Schafer M., & Moritz S. (2009). Impact of stress on paranoia: An experimental study of moderators and mediators. Psychological Medicine, 7, 1129-1139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291708004613
85. Lincoln T. M., Ziegler M., Mehl S., & Rief W. (2010). The jumping to conclusions bias in delusions: Specificity and changeability. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 40-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018118
86. Lothmann C., Holmes E. A., Chan S. W., & Lau J. Y. (2010). Cognitive bias modification training in adolescents: Effects on interpretation bias and mood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 24-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02286.x
87. Loughland C., Williams L., & Gordon E. (2002). Visual scanpaths to positive and negative facial emotions in an outpatient schizophrenic sample. Schizophrenia Research, 55, 159-170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00186-4
88. Mackintosh B., Mathews A., Yiend J., Ridgeway V., & Cook E. (2006). Induced biases in emotional interpretation influence stress vulnerability and endure despite changes in context. Behaviour Therapy, 37, 209-222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.03.001
89. MacLeod C., & Cohen I. L. (1993). Anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguity: A text comprehension study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 238-247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.102.2.238
90. MacLeod C., & Rutherford E. (2004). Information-processing approaches: Assessing the selective functioning of attention, interpretation, and retrieval. In Heimberg R. H., Turk C. L., & Mennin D. S. (Eds) Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice. New York: Guilford Press. Pp 109-142.
91. Mandal M. K., Pandey R., Prasad A. B. (1998). Facial expressions of emotions and schizophrenia: A review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24, 399-412.
92. Mathews A., & Mackintosh B. (2000). Induced emotional interpretation bias and Anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 602-615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.109.4.602
93. Mathews A., & MacLeod C. (1994). Cognitive approaches to emotion and emotional disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 25-50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.45.020194.000325
94. Mathews A., & MacLeod C. (2002). Induced processing biases have casual effects on anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 331-354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000518
95. Mathews A., Ridgeway V., Cook E., & Yiend J. (2007). Inducing a benign interpretational bias reduces trait anxiety. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38, 225-236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.10.011
96. Mathews A., Yiend J., & Lawrence A. D. (2004). Individual differences in the modulation of fear-related brain activation by attentional control. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 1683-1694. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/0898929042947810
97. McKay R., Langdon R., & Coltheart M. (2005). Paranoia, persecutory delusions and attributional biases. Psychiatry Research, 136, 233-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2005.06.004
98. McNally R. J., Hornig C. D., Hoffman E. C., & Han E. M. (1999). Anxiety sensitivity and cognitive biases for threat. Behavior Therapy, 30, 51-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(99)80045-8
99. Menon M., Mizrahi R., & Kapur S. (2008). ‘Jumping to conclusions’ and delusions in psychosis: Relationship and response to treatment. Schizophrenia Research, 98, 225-231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2007.08.021
100. Miller L. J., O'Connor E., & DiPasquale T. (1993). Patient's attitudes toward hallucinations. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 584-588.
101. Miskovic V., & Schmidt L. A. (2010). Individual differences in psychoticism predict attention for emotional faces. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 499-501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.10.031
102. Mogg K., & Bradley B. P. (1998). A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 809-848. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00063-1
103. Mogg K., Bradley B. P., & Hallowell N. (1994). Attentional bias to threat: Roles of trait anxiety, stressful events, and awareness. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47A, 841-864.
104. Mogg K., Garner M., & Bradley B. P. (2007). Anxiety and orienting of gaze to angry and fearful faces. Biological Psychiatry, 76, 163-169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.07.005
105. Moritz S., Burnette P., Sperber S., Kother U., Hagemann-Goebel M., Hartmann M., & Lincoln T. M. (2010). Elucidating the black box from stress to paranoia. Schizophrenia Bulletin Advance Access, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbq055
106. Moritz S., & Laroi F. (2008). Differences and similarities in the sensory and cognitive signatures of voice-hearing, intrusions and thoughts. Schizophrenia Research, 102, 96-107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2008.04.007
107. Moritz S., & Laudan A. (2007). Attention bias for paranoia-relevant visual stimuli in schizophrenia. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 12, 381-390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546800601119982
108. Moritz S., Peters M. J. V., Karow A., Deljkovic A., Tonn D., & Naber D. (2009). Cure or curse? Ambivalent attitudes towards neuroleptic medication in schizophrenia and non-schizophrenia patients. Mental Illness, 1, 4-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/mi.2009.e2
109. Mortiz S., Veckenstedt R., Randjbar S., Hottenrott B., Woodward T. S., Eckstaedt F. V. v., … Lincoln T. M. (2009). Decision making under uncertainty and mood induction: further evidence for liberal acceptance in schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 39, 1821-1829. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709005923
110. Mortiz S., Vitzthum F., Randjbar S., Veckenstedt R., & Woodward T.S. (2010). Detecting and defusing cognitive traps: Metacognitive intervention in schizophrenia. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 23, 561-569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e32833d16a8
111. Moritz S., Voigt K., Arzola M., & Otte C. (2008). When the half full glass is appraised as half empty and memorised as completely empty: Mood-congruent true and false recognition in depression is modulated by salience. Memory, 16, 810-820. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09658210802282708
112. Moritz S., & Woodward T. S. (2005). Jumping to conclusions in delusional and non- delusional schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 193-207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/014466505X35678
113. Moritz S., & Woodward T. S. (2010). Metacognition Training for Schizophrenia (MCT) Manual (4th ed). Metacognition Study Group. Hamburg: VanHam Campus.
114. Moritz S., & Woodward T. S. (2007a). Metacognitive training in schizophrenia: from basic research to knowledge translation and intervention. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20, 619-625. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282f0b8ed
115. Moritz S., & Woodward T. S. (2007b). Metacognitive training for schizophrenia patients (MCT): A pilot study on feasibility, treatment adherence, and subjective efficacy. Retrieved August 24, 2007, from http://www.gjpsy.uni-goettingen.de/gjp-article-moritz3.pdf
116. Moritz S., & Woodward T. S. (2006a). Specificity of a generalized bias against disconfirmatory evidence (BADE) to schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 142, 157-165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2005.08.016
117. Moritz S., & Woodward T. S. (2006b). The contribution of metamemory deficits in schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 15, 15-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.15.1.15
118. Moritz S., Woodward T. S., Jelinek L., & Klinge R. (2008). Memory and metamemory in schizophrenia: A liberal acceptance account of psychosis. Psychological Medicine, 38, 825-832. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707002553
119. Morrison A. (1998). A cognitive analysis of the maintenance of auditory hallucinations: Are voices to schizophrenia what bodily sensations are to panic? Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 26, 289-302.
120. Morrison A. (2001). The interpretation of intrusions in psychosis: An integrative cognitive approach to hallucinations and delusions. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 29, 257-276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1352465801003010
121. Morrison A., & Baker C. (2000). Intrusive thoughts and auditory hallucinations: A comparative study of intrusions in psychosis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 1097-1106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00143-6
122. Morrison A., Nothard S., Bowe S., & Wells A. (2004). Interpretations of voices in patients with hallucinations and non-patient controls: A comparison and predictors of distress in patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1315-1323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.009
123. Murphy R., Hirsch C., Mathews A., Smith K., & Clark D. (2007). Affiliating a benign interpretation bias in high socially anxious population. Behavior Research and Therapy, 45, 1517-1529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.01.007
124. Ohman A., Flykt A., & Esteves F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology, General, 130, 466-478. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.466
125. Ohman A., Lundqvist D., & Esteves F. (2001). The face in the crowd revisited: A threat advantage with schematic stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 318-296. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.381
126. Peters E. R., & Garety P. (2006). Cognitive functioning in delusions: a longitudinal examination. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 44, 481-514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.03.008
127. Phaf R. H., & Khan K. J. (2007). The automaticity of emotional Stroop: A meta- analysis. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38, 184-199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.10.008
128. Phillips M. L., & David A. S. (1998). Abnormal visual scan paths: a psychophysiological marker of delusions in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 29, 235-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(97)00097-2
129. Phillips M. L., & David A. S. (1997). Visual scan paths are abnormal in deluded schizophrenics. Neuropsychologia, 35, 99-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(96)00061-9
130. Phillips M. L., Senior C., & David A. S. (2000). Perception of threat in schizophrenics with persecutory delusions: an investigation using visual scan paths. Psychological Medicine, 30, 157-167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291799001397
131. Reichenberg A. (2005). Cognitive impairment as a risk factor for psychosis. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 7, 31-38.
132. Richards A., & French C. C. (1992). An anxiety-related bias in semantic activation when processing threat/neutral homographs. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45, 503-525. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724989208250625
133. Richards A., French C. C., Calder A. J., Webb B., Fox R., & Young A. W. (2002). Anxiety-related bias in the classification of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. Emotion, 2, 273-287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.2.3.273
134. Romme M. A. J., Honig A., Noorthoorn E. O., & Escher A. D. M. A. C. (1992). Coping with hearing voices: An emancipatory approach. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 99-103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.161.1.99
135. Ross K., Freeman D., Dunn G., & Garety P. A. (2011). A randomized experimental investigation of reasoning training for people with delusions. Schizophrenia Bulletin Advance Access, 37, 324-333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbn165
136. Rosser B. A., Moss T., Rumsey N. (2010). Attentional and interpretive biases in appearance concern: An investigation of biases in appearance-related information processing. Body Image, 7, 251-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.02.007
137. Rude S., Wenzlaff R. M., Gibbs B., Vane J., & Whitney T. (2002). Negative processing biases predict subsequent depressive symptoms. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 423-440. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000554
138. Salemink E., & van den Hout M. (2010). Trained interpretive bias survives mood change. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38, 59-66.
139. Salemink E., van den Hout M., & Kindt M. (2009). Effects of positive interpretive bias modification in highly anxious individuals. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 676-683. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.02.006
140. Salemink E., van den Hout M. A., & Kindt M. (2007). Selective attention and threat: Quick orienting versus slow disengagement and two versions of the dot probe task Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 607-615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.04.004
141. Schmidt N. B., Richey A. J., Buckner J. D., & Timpano K. R. (2009). Attention Training for Generalized Social Anxiety Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 5-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0013643
142. See J., MacLeod C., & Bridle R. (2009). The reduction of anxiety vulnerability through the modification of attentional bias: A real-world study using a home- based cognitive bias modification procedure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 65-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014377
143. Singh G., Sharan P., & Kulhara P. (2002). Attitude towards hallucinations in schizophrenia. Hong Kong Journal of Psychiatry, 12, 2-5.
144. So S. H., Freeman D., & Garety P. (2008). Impact of state anxiety on the jumping to conclusions delusion bias. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 42, 879-886. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00048670802345466
145. Spokas M. E., Rodebaugh T. L., & Heiberg R. G. (2007). Cognitive biases in social phobia. Psychiatry, 6, 204-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mppsy.2007.02.006
146. Startup H., Freeman D., & Garety P. A. (2008). Jumping to conclusions and persecutory delusions. European Psychiatry, 23, 457-459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2008.04.005
147. Steel C., Wykes T., Ruddle A., Smith G., Shah D., & Holmes E. A. (2010). Can we harness computerised cognitive bias modification to treat anxiety in schizophrenia? A first step highlighting the role of mental imagery. Psychiatry Research, 178, 451-455. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.04.042
148. Steinman S. A., & Teachman B. A. (2010). Modifying interpretations among individuals high in anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 71-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.08.008
149. Stroop J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0054651
150. Teachman B. A., Smith-Janik S. B., & Saporito J. (2007). Information processing biases and panic disorder: Relationships among cognitive and symptom measures. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1791-1811. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.01.009
151. Turner R., Hoppitt L., Hodgekings J., Wilkinson J., Mackintosh B., & Fowler D. (2011). Cognitive bias modification in the treatment of social anxiety in early psychosis: A single case series. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 39, 341-347. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1352465810000706
152. Vaughan S., & Fowler D. (2004). The distress experienced by voice hearers is associated with the perceived relationship between the voice hearer and the voice. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 143-153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/014466504323088024
153. Verdoux H., Liraud F., Assens F., Abalan F., & van Os J. (2002). Social and clinical consequences of cognitive deficits in early psychosis: A two-year follow-up study of first-admitted patients. Schizophrenia Research, 56, 149-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00225-0
154. Walston F., Blennerhassett R. C., & Charlton B. G. (2000). “Theory of mind”, persecutory delusions and the somatic marker mechanism. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 5, 161-174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546800050083511
155. Watkins E. R., Baeyens C. B., & Read R. (2009). Concreteness training reduces dysphoria: Proof-of-principle for repeated cognitive bias modification for depressions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 55-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0013642
156. Weber D. L. (2008). Information processing bias in post-traumatic stress disorder. Open Neuroimaging Journal, 2, 29-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874440000802010029
157. Williams J. M. G., Mathews A., & MacLeod C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3
158. Williams J. M. G., Watts F. N., MacLeod C., & Mathews A. (Eds) (1997). Cognitive Psychology and Emotional Disorders (2nd ed.). Chichester: Wiley.
159. Williams J. M. G., Watts F. N., MacLeod C., & Mathews A. (Eds) (1988). Cognitive Psychology and Emotional Disorders. Chichester: Wiley.
160. Wilmott L., Casey H., Rogers R. D., & Yiend J. (2009). Facial emotion processing in psychopathy. In Freitas-Magalhaes A. (Ed.) Emotional expression: The brain and the face. Portugal: Edicoes Universidae Fernando Pessoa. Pp 59-92.
161. Wilson E., MacLeod C., Mathews A., & Rutherford E. (2006). The causal role of interpretative bias in anxiety reactivity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 103-111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.115.1.103
162. Woodward T. S., Moritz S., Cuttler C., & Whitman J. (2006). The contribution of a cognitive bias against disconfirmatory evidence (BADE) to delusions in schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28, 605-617. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803390590949511
163. Woodward T. S., Munz M., LeCler C., & Lecomte T. (2009). Change in delusions is associated with change in ‘jumping to conclusions.’ Psychiatry Research, 170, 124-127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.10.020
164. Yiend J. (2010). The effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of emotional information. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 3-47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699930903205698
165. Yiend J., & Mackintosh B. (2004). The experimental modification of processing biases. In Yiend J. (Ed.) Cognition, Emotion and Psychopathology (pp. 190-210). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Pp 190-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511521263.011
166. Yiend J., Mackintosh B., & Mathews A. (2005). Enduring consequences of experimentally induced biases in interpretation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 779-797. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.06.007
167. Yiend J., & Mathews A. (2001). Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A - Human Psychology, 54(3), 665-681. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713755991
168. Yiend J., & Mathews A. (2005). Selective attention tasks in cognitive research. Biases in attention: Methods, mechanisms and meaning. In Wenzel A., & Rubin D.C (Eds) Cognitive methods in clinical research. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pp. 97-117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10870-006
169. Yiend J., Mathews A., Weston B., Dunn B. D., Cusack R., Mackintosh B. (2008). An investigation of the implicit control of the processing of negative pictures. Emotion, 8(6), 828-837. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014146
170. Young H. F., & Bentall R. P. (1997). Probabilistic reasoning in deluded, depressed and normal subjects: Effects of task difficulty and meaningful versus non-meaningful material. Psychological Medicine, 27, 455-465. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291796004540