Behavior displayed by female victims during rapes committed by lone and multiple perpetrators

Psychology, Public Policy, and Law

Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 415-452

  Woodhams, Jessica ^a   Hollin, Clive R ^b   Bull, Ray ^b   Cooke, Claire ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GLOUCESTERSHIRE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Coping; Group rape; Rape avoidance; Resistance; Sexual assault

Indexed keywords

EID: 84874697365     PISSN: 10768971     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0026134     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Afifi, W. A., & Lee, J. (2000). Balancing instrumental and identity goals in relationships: The role of request directness and request persistence in the selection of sexual resistance strategies. Communication Monographs, 67, 284-305. doi:10.1080/03637750009376511.
2. Ahlmeyer, S., Heil, P., McKee, B., & English, K. (2000). The impact of polygraphy on admissions of victims and offenses in adult sex offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 2, 123-138. doi:10.1177/107906320001200204.
3. Amir, M. (1971). Patterns in forcible rape. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
4. Amnesty International U.K. (2005). Sexual assault research summary report. Retrieved from http://www.amnesty.org.uk/news_details.asp?NewsID=16618.
5. Ardovini-Brooker, J., & Caringella-MacDonald, S. (2002). Media attributions of blame and sympathy in ten rape cases. The Justice Professional, 15, 3-18. doi:10.1080/08884310212826.
6. Bachman, R. (1993). Predicting the reporting of rape victimizations: Have rape reforms made a difference? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 20, 254-270. doi:10.1177/0093854893020003003.
7. Biggers, J. R., & Yim, C. I. (2003). Rape trauma syndrome: An examination of standards that determine the admissibility of expert witness testimony. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 3, 61-77. doi:10.1300/J158v03n01_06.
8. Bijleveld, C. J. H., Weerman, F., Looije, D., & Hendriks, J. (2007). Group sex offending by juveniles: Coercive sex as a group activity. European Journal of Criminology, 4, 5-31. doi:10.1177/1477370807071728.
9. Block, R., & Skogan, W. G. (1986). Resistance and nonfatal outcomes in stranger-tostranger predatory crime. Violence and Victims, 1, 241-253.
10. Boccaccini, M. T., & Brodsky, S. L. (2002). Believability of expert and lay witnesses: Implications for trial consultation. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33, 384-388. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.33.4.384.
11. Bohner, G., Siebler, F., & Schmelcher, J. (2006). Social norms and the likelihood of raping: Perceived rape myth acceptance of others' affects men's rape proclivity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 286-297. doi:10.1177/0146167205280912.
12. Borgida, E., & White, P. (1978). Social perception of rape victims: The impact of legal reform. Law and Human Behavior, 2, 339-351. doi:10.1007/BF01038986.
13. Bradley, E. H., Curry, L. A., & Devers, K. J. (2007). Qualitative data analysis for health services research: Developing taxonomy, themes and theory. Health Services Research, 42, 1758-1772. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00684.x.
14. Brekke, N., & Borgida, E. (1988). Expert psychological testimony in rape trials: A social-cognitive analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 372-386. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.3.372.
15. Brown, J. M., Hamilton, C., & O'Neill, D. (2007). Characteristics associated with rape attrition and the role played by scepticism or legal rationality by investigators and prosecutors. Psychology, Crime and Law, 13, 355-370. doi:10.1080/10683160601060507.
16. Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1976). The coping behavior of the rape victim. American Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 413-417.
17. Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217-230. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.217.
18. Byers, E. S., Giles, B. L., & Price, D. L. (1987). Definiteness and effectiveness of women's responses to unwanted sexual advances: A laboratory investigation. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 8, 321-338. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp0804_5.
19. Campbell, R., Ahrens, C. E., Self, T., Wasco, S. M., & Barnes, H. E. (2001). Social reactions to rape victims: Healing and hurtful effects on psychological and physical health outcomes. Violence and Victims, 16, 287-302.
20. Campbell, R., Dworkin, E., & Cabral, G. (2009). An ecological model of the impact of sexual assault on women's mental health. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 10, 225-246. doi:10.1177/1524838009334456.
21. Caringella-MacDonald, S. (1998). The relative visibility of rape cases in national popular magazines. Violence Against Women, 4, 62-80. doi:10.1177/1077801298004001005.
22. Charron, A., & Woodhams, J. (2010). A qualitative analysis of mock jurors' deliberations of linkage analysis evidence. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 7, 165-183. doi:10.1002/jip.119.
23. Chen, Y., & Ullman, S. E. (2010). Women's reporting of sexual and physical assaults to police in the National Violence Against Women survey. Violence Against Women, 16, 262-279. doi:10.1177/1077801209360861.
24. Cicchetti, D. V. (1994). Guidelines, criteria, and rules of thumb for evaluating standardized assessment instruments in psychology. Psychological Assessment, 6, 284-290. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.6.4.284.
25. Clay-Warner, J., & Burt, C. H. (2005). Rape reporting after reforms: Have times really changed? Violence Against Women, 11, 150-176. doi:10.1177/1077801204271566.
26. Cohen, P. B. (1984). Resistance during sexual assaults: Avoiding rape and injury. Victimology: An International Journal, 9, 120-129.
27. Dale, A., Davies, A., & Wei, L. (1997). Developing a typology of rapists' speech. Journal of Pragmatics, 27, 653-669. doi:10.1016/S0378-2166(96)00060-4.
28. Devine, D. J., Clayton, L. D., Dunford, B. B., Seyring, R., & Pryce, J. (2001). Jury decision making: 45 years of empirical research on deliberating groups. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 7, 622-727. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.7.3.622.
29. DuMont, J., Miller, K. L., & Myhr, T. L. (2003). The role of "real rape" and "real victim" stereotypes in the police reporting practices of sexually assaulted women. Violence Against Women, 9, 466-486. doi:10.1177/1077801202250960.
30. Easteal, P. W. (1992). Rape. Violence Prevention Today, 1, 1-7.
31. Ellison, L. (2005). Closing the credibility gap: The prosecutorial use of expert witness testimony in sexual assault cases. The International Journal of Evidence and Proof, 9, 239-268. doi:10.1350/ijep.2005.9.4.239.
32. Ellison, L., & Munro, V. E. (2009a). Reacting to rape: Exploring mock jurors' assessments of complainant credibility. British Journal of Criminology, 49, 202-219. doi:10.1093/bjc/azn077.
33. Ellison, L., & Munro, V. E. (2009b). Turning mirrors into windows? Assessing the impact of (mock) juror education in rape trials. British Journal of Criminology, 49, 363-383. doi:10.1093/bjc/azp013.
34. Eyssel, F., & Bohner, G. (2011). Schema effects of rape myth acceptance on judgments of guilt and blame in rape cases: The role of perceived entitlement to judge. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 1579-1605. doi:10.1177/0886260510370593.
35. Faigman, D. (1986). The Battered Woman Syndrome and self-defense: A legal and empirical dissent. Virginia Law Review, 72, 619-647. doi:10.2307/1072974.
36. Feist, A., Ashe, J., Lawrence, J., McPhee, D., & Wilson, R. (2007). Investigating and detecting recorded offenses of rape. Home Office Online Report 18/07. London, United Kingdom: Home Office.
37. Felson, R. B., & Pare, P. P. (2008). Gender and the victim's experience with the criminal justice system. Social Science Research, 37, 202-219. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.06.014.
38. Filipas, H. H., & Ullman, S. (2001). Social reactions to sexual assault victims from various support sources. Violence and Victims, 16, 673-692.
39. Finney, A. (2006). Domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking: Findings from the 2004/5 British Crime Survey. Home Office On-line Report 12/06. London, United Kingdom: Crown Office.
40. Fossi, J. J., Clarke, D. D., & Lawrence, C. (2005). Bedroom rape: Sequences of sexual behavior in stranger assaults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1444-1466. doi:10.1177/0886260505278716.
41. Franiuk, R., Seefelt, J. L., Cepress, S. L., & Vandello, J. A. (2008). Prevalence and effects of rape myths in print journalism: The Kobe Bryant case. Violence Against Women, 14, 287-309. doi:10.1177/1077801207313971.
42. Franiuk, R., Seefelt, J. L., & Vandello, J. A. (2008). Prevalence of rape myths in headlines and their effects on attitudes towards rape. Sex Roles, 58, 790-801. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9372-4.
43. Frazier, P. A. (1990). Victim attributions and post-rape trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 298-304. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.298.
44. Frazier, P. A., & Borgida, E. (1992). Rape trauma syndrome: A review of case law and psychological research. Law and Human Behavior, 16, 293-311. doi:10.1007/BF01044771.
45. Frazier, P. A., & Haney, B. (1996). Sexual assault cases in the legal system: Police, prosecutor and victim perspectives. Law and Human Behavior, 20, 607-628. doi: 10.1007/BF01499234.
46. Frazier, P. A., Mortensen, H., & Steward, J. (2005). Coping strategies as mediators of the relations among perceived control and distress in sexual assault survivors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 267-278. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.52.3.267.
47. Frohmann, L. (1991). Discrediting victims' allegations of sexual assault: Prosecutorial accounts of case rejections. Social Problems, 38, 213-226. doi:10.1525/sp.1991.38.2.03a00070.
48. Galliano, G., Noble, L. M., Travis, L. A., & Puechl, C. (1993). Victim reactions during rape/sexual assault: A preliminary study of the immobility response and its correlates. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 109-114. doi:10.1177/088626093008001008.
49. Garcia, L. T. (1998). Perceptions of resistance to unwanted sexual advances. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 10, 43-52. doi:10.1300/J056v10n01_03.
50. Gerger, H., Kley, H., Bohner, G., & Sielber, F. (2007). The Acceptance of Modern Myths about Sexual Aggression scale: Development and validation in German and English. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 422-440. doi:10.1002/ab.20195.
51. Giacopassi, D. J., & Dull, R. T. (1986). Gender and racial differences in the acceptance of rape myths within a college population. Sex Roles, 15, 63-75. doi:10.1007/BF00287532.
52. Gray, J. (2006). Rape myth beliefs and prejudiced instructions: Effects on decisions of guilt in a case of date rape. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 11, 75-80. doi:10.1348/135532505X68250.
53. Greenfeld, L. A. (1997). Sex offenses and offenders: An analysis of data on rape and sexual assault. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
54. Groth, A. N., & Loredo, C. M. (1981). Juvenile sexual offenders: Guidelines for assessment. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 25, 31-39. doi:10.1177/0306624X8102500104.
55. Harris, J., & Grace, S. (1999). A question of evidence? Investigating and prosecuting rape in the 1990s. London, United Kingdom: Home Office.
56. Hauffe, S., & Porter, L. (2009). An interpersonal comparison of lone and group rape offenses. Psychology, Crime and Law, 15, 469-491. doi:10.1080/10683160802409339.
57. Henwood, K. L., & Pidgeon, N. F. (2006). Grounded theory. In G. Breakwell, C. Fife-Schaw, S. Hammond, & J. Smith (Eds.); Research methods in psychology (3rd ed., pp. 342-364). London, United Kingdom: Sage.
58. Her Majesty's Crown Prosecution Service Inspectorate (HMCPSI). (2002). A report on the joint inspection into the investigation and prosecution of cases involving allegations of rape. London, United Kingdom: HMCPSI.
59. Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary (HMIC). (2007). Without consent: A report on the joint review of the investigation and prosecution of rape offenses. London, United Kingdom: HMIC.
60. Jamel, J., Bull, R., & Sheridan, L. (2008). An investigation of the specialist police service provided to male rape survivors. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 10, 486-508. doi:10.1350/ijps.2008.10.4.101.
61. Jordan, J. (2004). Beyond belief? Police, rape and women's credibility. Criminal Justice, 4, 29-59. doi:10.1177/1466802504042222.
62. Jordan, J. (2005). What would MacGyver do? The meaning(s) of resistance and survival. Violence Against Women, 11, 531-559. doi:10.1177/1077801204273299.
63. Kennedy, M. A. (2009). Psychological syndrome evidence. In D. A. Krauss & J. D. Lieberman (Eds.), Psychological expertise in court: Psychology in the courtroom (Vol. 2, pp. 103-121). Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing.
64. Kitzinger, J. (2009). Rape in the media. In M. Horvath & J. Brown (Eds.), Rape: Challenging contemporary thinking (pp. 74-98). Cullompton, Devon, United Kingdom: Willan.
65. Korn, A., & Efrat, S. (2004). The coverage of rape in the Israeli popular press. Violence Against Women, 10, 1056-1074. doi:10.1177/1077801204267378.
66. Koss, M. P., Dinero, T. E., Seibel, C. A., & Cox, S. L. (1988). Stranger and acquaintance rape: Are there differences in the victim's experience? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 1-24. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1988.tb00924.x.
67. Koss, M. P., & Figueredo, A. J. (2004). Change in cognitive mediators of rape's impact on psychosocial health across two years of recovery. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 1063-1072. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.6.1063.
68. Krauss, D. A., Lieberman, J. D., & Olson, J. (2004). The effects of rational and experiential information processing of expert testimony in death penalty cases. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 22, 801-822. doi:10.1002/bsl.621.
69. Krauss, D. A., & Sales, B. D. (2001). The effects of clinical and scientific expert testimony on juror decision making in capital sentencing. Psychology, Public Policy & Law, 7, 267-310. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.7.2.267.
70. Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33, 159-174. doi:10.2307/2529310.
71. Lannutti, P. J., & Monahan, J. L. (2004). Resistance, persistence and drinking: Examining goals of women's refusals of unwanted sexual advances. Western Journal of Communication, 68, 151-169. doi:10.1080/10570310409374794.
72. Levett, L. M., & Kovera, M. B. (2008). The effectiveness of educating jurors about unreliable expert evidence using an opposing witness. Law and Human Behavior, 32, 363-374. doi:10.1007/s10979-007-9113-9.
73. Levett, L. M., & Kovera, M. B. (2009). Psychological mediators of the effects of opposing expert testimony on juror decisions. Psychology, Public Policy & Law, 15, 124-148. doi:10.1037/a0016309.
74. Lievore, D. (2004). Prosecutorial decisions in adult sexual assault cases: An Australian study. Canberra, Australia: Office of the Status of Women.
75. Littleton, H., & Breitkopf, C. R. (2006). Coping with the experience of rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 106-116. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00267.x.
76. Littleton, H. L., Rhatigan, D. L., & Axsom, D. (2007). Unacknowledged rape: How much do we know about the hidden rape victim? Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 14, 57-74. doi:10.1300/J146v14n04_04.
77. Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths in review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 133-164. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00448.x.
78. Luckenbill, D. F. (1981). Generating compliance: The case of robbery. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 10, 25-46. doi:10.1177/089124168101000102.
79. Lynch, J. P., & Addington, L. A. (2009). Identifying and addressing response errors in self-report surveys. In A. R. Piquero & D. Weisburd (Eds.), Handbook of quantitative criminology (pp. 251-272). New York, NY: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77650-7_13.
80. McCabe, J. G., Krauss, D. A., & Lieberman, J. D. (2010). Reality check: A comparison of college students and a community sample of mock jurors in a simulated sexual violent predator civil commitment. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 28, 730-750. doi:10.1002/bsl.902.
81. McNickle-Rose, V., & Randall, S. C. (1982). The impact of investigator perceptions of victim legitimacy on the processing of rape/sexual assault cases. Symbolic Interaction, 5, 23-36. doi:10.1525/si.1982.5.1.23.
82. Meyer, A. (2010). "Too drunk to say no": Binge drinking, rape and the Daily Mail. Feminist Media Studies, 10, 19-34. doi:10.1080/14680770903457071.
83. Mooney, A. (2007). When rape is (not quite) rape. In J. Cotterill (Ed.), The language of sexual crime (pp. 198-216). Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. doi: 10.1057/9780230592780.
84. Office for Criminal Justice Reform. (2006). Convicting rapists and protecting victims: Justice for victims of rape: A consultation paper. London, United Kingdom: Office for Criminal Justice Reform.
85. Page, A. D. (2008). Gateway to reform? Policy implications of police officers' attitudes toward rape. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 33, 44-58. doi:10.1007/s12103-007-9024-9.
86. Patterson, D., & Campbell, R. (2010). Why rape survivors participate in the Criminal Justice System. Journal of Community Psychology, 38, 191-205. doi:10.1002/jcop.20359.
87. Payne, D. L., Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 27-68. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1998.2238.
88. Ponterrotto, D. (2007). The repertoire of complicity vs. coercion: The discursive trap of the rape trial protocol. In J. Cotterill (Ed.), The language of sexual crime (pp. 104-125). Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230592780.
89. Porter, L. E., & Alison, L. J. (2006). Examining group rape: A descriptive analysis of offender and victim behavior. European Journal of Criminology, 3, 357-381. doi: 10.1177/1477370806065586.
90. Ritchie, J., & Spencer, L. (1994). Qualitative data analysis for applied policy research. In A. Bryman, & R. G. Burgess (Eds.), Analysing qualitative data (pp. 173-194). London, United Kingdom: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203413081_chapter_9.
91. Rizvi, S. L., Kaysen, D., Gutner, C. A., Griffin, M. G., & Resnick, P. A. (2008). Beyond fear: The role of peritraumatic responses in posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms among female crime victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 853-868. doi:10.1177/0886260508314851.
92. Rock, F. (2001). The genesis of a witness statement. Forensic Linguistics: The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 8, 44-72. doi:10.1558/sll.2001.8.2.44.
93. Saunders, E. B., & Awad, G. A. (1988). Assessment, management and treatment planning for male adolescent sexual offenders. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 58, 571-579. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1988.tb01621.x.
94. Schuller, R. A., McKimmie, B. M., & Janz, T. (2004). The impact of expert testimony in trials of battered women who kill. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 11, 1-12. doi:10.1375/pplt.2004.11.1.1.
95. Schuller, R. A., Terry, D., & McKimmie, B. (2005). The impact of expert testimony on juror's decisions: Gender of the expert and testimony complexity. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 1266-1280. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02170.x.
96. Sinclair, H. C., & Bourne, L. E. (1998). Cycle of blame or just world: Effects of legal verdicts on gender patterns in rape-myth acceptance and victim empathy. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 575-588. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00178.x.
97. Sleath, E., & Woodhams, J. (2010). Perceptions of rape victim credibility. Manuscript submitted for publication.
98. South African Law Commission. (n.d.). Conviction rates and other outcomes of crimes reported in eight South African police areas: Research Paper 18. Pretoria, South Africa: South African Law Commission.
99. Spohn, C., Beichner, D., & Davis-Frenzel, E. (2002). Prosecutorial justifications for sexual assault case rejection: Guarding the "gateway to justice". Social Problems, 48, 206-235. doi:10.1525/sp.2001.48.2.206.
100. Stanko, E. A. (1981-1982). The impact of victim assessment on prosecutors' screening decisions: The case of the New York County District Attorney's Office. Law and Society Review, 16, 225-223. doi:10.2307/3053358.
101. Süssenbach, P., & Bohner, G. (2011). Acceptance of sexual aggression myths in a representative sample of German residents. Aggressive Behavior, 37, 374-385.
102. Swallow, V. M., & Jacoby, A. (2001). Mothers' coping in chronic childhood illness: The effect of presymptomatic diagnosis of vesicoureteric reflux. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 33, 69-78. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01639.x.
103. Tetreault, P. A. (1989). Rape myth acceptance: A case for providing educational expert testimony in rape jury trials. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 7, 243-257. doi: 10.1002/bsl.2370070208.
104. Tetreault, P. A., & Bristow, A. R. (1988, March). The influence of rape myths and facts in a rape jury trial. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychology-Law Society, Miami, FL.
105. Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in interaction: An introduction to pragmatics. Harlow, Essex, United Kingdom: Pearson Education Ltd.
106. Ullman, S. E. (2007). A 10-year update of "Review and critique of empirical studies of rape avoidance". Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 411-429. doi:10.1177/0093854806297117.
107. Ullman, S. E., Filipas, H. H., Townsend, S. M., & Starzynski, L. L. (2007). Psychosocial correlates of PTSD symptom severity in sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 821-831. doi:10.1002/jts.20290.
108. Ullman, S. E., & Najdowski, C. J. (2011). Prospective changes in attributions of selfblame and social reactions to women's disclosures of adult sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 26, 1934-1962. doi:10.1177/0886260510372940.
109. Van Wie, V. E., & Gross, A. M. (2001). The role of women's explanation for refusal on men's ability to discriminate unwanted sexual behavior in a date rape scenario. Journal of Family Violence, 16, 331-344. doi:10.1023/A:1012215708435.
110. Walker, A., Kershaw, C., & Nicholas, S. (2006). Crime in England and Wales 2005/6. London, United Kingdom: Home Office.
111. Walker, L., & Monahan, J. (1987). Social frameworks: A new use of social science in law. Virginia Law Review, 73, 559-598. doi:10.2307/1072923.
112. Wasco, S. M. (2003). Conceptualizing the harm done by rape: Applications of trauma theory to experiences of sexual assault. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 4, 309-322. doi:10.1177/1524838003256560.
113. Weiss, K. G. (2009). "Boys will be boys" and other gendered accounts: An exploration of victims' excuses and justifications for unwanted sexual contact and coercion. Violence Against Women, 15, 810-834. doi:10.1177/1077801209333611.
114. Williams, L. S. (1984). The classic rape: When do victims report? Social Problems, 31, 459-467. doi:10.1525/sp.1984.31.4.03a00070.
115. Willig, C. (2001). Introducing qualitative research in psychology: Adventures in theory and method. Maidenhead, Berkshire, United Kingdom: Open University Press.
116. Wright, R., & West, D. J. (1981). Rape: A comparison of group offenses and lone assaults. Medicine, Science and the Law, 21, 25-30.