Pulsed deformation and variable slip rates within the central Himalayan thrust belt

Lithosphere

Volumn 4, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 449-464

  Robinson, Delores M ^a   McQuarrie, Nadine ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEPOSITION; EROSION; REPAIR; STRATIGRAPHY;

FOLD-AND-THRUST BELTS; FORELAND BASIN; FORWARD MODELING; LESSER HIMALAYA; MAIN CENTRAL THRUSTS; MODEL RECONSTRUCTION; PULSED DEFORMATIONS; VARIABLE SLIP;

DEFORMATION;

BASIN ANALYSIS; DATA PROCESSING; DEFORMATION MECHANISM; FAULT PROPAGATION; NUMERICAL MODEL; SLIP RATE; THRUST FAULT;

HIMALAYAS; NEPAL;

EID: 84873497984     PISSN: 19418264     EISSN: 19474253     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1130/L204.1     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. Aikman, A.B., Harrison, T.M., and Ding, L., 2008, Evidence for early (>44 Ma) Himalayan crustal thickening, Tethyan Himalaya, southeastern Tibet: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 274, p. 14-23, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.06.038.
2. Amatya, K.M., and Jnawal, B.M., 1994, Geological Map of Nepal: Kathmandu, Nepal, Royal Department of Mines and Geology, scale 1:1,000,000, 1 sheet.
3. Amidon, W.H., Burbank, D.W., and Gehrels, G.E., 2005, Construction of detrital mineral populations: Insights from mixing of U/Pb zircon ages in Himalayan rivers: Basin Research, v. 17, p. 463-485, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2005.00279.x.
4. Barnes, J.B., and Pelletier, J.D., 2006, Latitudinal variation of denudation in the evolution of the Bolivian Andes: American Journal of Science, v. 306, p. 1-31, doi:10.2475/ajs.306.1.1.
5. Bernet, M., van der Beek, P., Pik, R., Huyghe, P., Mugnier, J.-L., Labrin, E., and Szulc, A., 2006, Miocene to recent exhumation of the central Himalaya determined from combined detrital zircon fission-track and U/Pb analysis of Siwalik sediments, western Nepal: Basin Research, v. 18, no. 4, p. 393-412, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00303.x.
6. Bettinelli, P., Avouac, J.-P., Flouzat, M., Jouanne, F., Bollinger, L., Willis, P., and Chitraker, G., 2006, Plate motion of India and interseismic strain in the Nepal Himalaya from GPS and DORIS measurements: Journal of Geodesy, v. 80, p. 567-589, doi:10.1007/s00190-006-0030-3.
7. Beyssac, O., Bollinger, L., Avouac, J.P., and Goffe, B., 2004, Thermal metamorphism in the Lesser Himalaya of Nepal determined from Raman spectroscopy of carbonaceous material: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 225, p. 233-241, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.05.023.
8. Blythe, A., Burbank, D.W., Carter, A., Schmidt, K.L., and Putkonen, J., 2007, Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Himalaya: 1. Apatite and zircon fission track and apatite [U-Th]/He analyses: Tectonics, v. 26, TC3002, doi:10.1029/2006TC001990.
9. Bollinger, L., Avouac, J.P., Beyssac, O., Catlos, E.J., Harrison, T.M., Grove, M., Goffe, B., and Sapkota, S., 2004, Thermal structure and exhumation history of the Lesser Himalaya: Tectonics, v. 23, TC5015, doi:10.1029/2003TC001564.
10. Bookhagen, B., and Burbank, D.W., 2006, Topography, relief, and TRMM-derived rainfall variations along the Himalaya: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 33, L08405, doi:10.1029 /2006GL026037.
11. Boyer, S.E., and Elliott, D., 1982, Thrust systems: The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 66, p. 1196-1230.
12. Brandon, M.T., Roden-Tice, M.K., and Garver, J.I., 1998, Late Cenozoic exhumation of the Cascadia accretionary wedge in the Olympic Mountains, northwest Washington State: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 110, p. 985-1009, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1998)110 <0985:LCEOTC>2.3.CO;2.
13. Brunel, M., 1986, Ductile thrusting in the Himalayas: Shear sense criteria and stretching lineation: Tectonics, v. 5, p. 247-265, doi:10.1029/TC005i002p00247.
14. Burbank, D.W., Beck, R.A., and Mulder, T., 1996, The Himalayan foreland basin, in Yin, A., and Harrison, T.M., eds., Tectonics of Asia: New York, Cambridge University Press, p. 205-226.
15. Burbank, D.W., Blythe, A.E., Putkonen, J., Pratt-Sitaula, B., Gabet, E., Oskin, M., Barros, A., and Ojha, T.P., 2003, Decoupling of erosion and precipitation in the Himalayas: Nature, v. 426, p. 652-655, doi:10.1038/nature02187.
16. Cande, S.C., and Kent, D.V., 1995, Revised calibration of the geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 100, p. 6093-6095, doi:10.1029/94JB03098.
17. Catlos, E.J., Harrison, T.M., Kohn, M.J., Grove, M., Ryerson, F.J., Manning, C., and Upreti, B.N., 2001, Geochronologic and thermobarometric constraints on the evolution of the Main Central thrust, central Nepal Himalaya: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 106, p. 16,177-16,204, doi:10.1029/2000JB900375.
18. Cawood, P.A., Johnson, M.R.W., and Nemchin, A.A., 2007, Paleozoic orogenesis along the Indian margin of Gondwana: Tectonic response to Gondwana assembly: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 255, p. 70-84, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.12.006.
19. Célérier, J., Harrison, T.M., Yin, A., and Webb, A.A.G., 2009, The Kumaun and Garwhal Lesser Himalaya, India: Part 1: Structure and stratigraphy: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 121, p. 1262-1280, doi:10.1130/B26344.1.
20. Chapple, W.M., 1978, Mechanics of thin-skinned fold-and-thrust belts: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 89, p. 1189-1198, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1978) 89<1189:MOTFB>2.0.CO;2.
21. Copley, A., Avouac, J.-P., and Royer, J.-Y., 2010, India-Asia collision and the Cenozoic slowdown of the Indian plates: Implications for the forces driving plate motions: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 115, B03410, doi:10.1029/2009JB006634.
22. Dahlen, F.A., 1990, Critical taper model of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 18, p. 55-99, doi:10.1146/annurev .ea.18.050190.000415.
23. Daniel, C.G., Hollister, L.S., Parrish, R.R., and Grujic, D., 2003, Exhumation of the Main Central thrust from lower crustal depths, eastern Bhutan Himalaya: Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 21, p. 317-334, doi:10.1046/j.1525-1314.2003.00445.x.
24. Davis, D., Suppe, J., and Dahlen, F.A., 1983, Mechanics of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 88, p. 1153-1172, doi:10.1029 /JB088iB02p01153.
25. DeCelles, P.G., and Giles, K.N., 1996, Foreland basin systems: Basin Research, v. 8, p. 105- 123, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2117.1996.01491.x.
26. DeCelles, P.G., Gehrels, G.E., Quade, J., Kapp, P.A., Ojha, T.P., and Upreti, B.N., 1998a, Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosional unroofing, and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 110, p. 2-21, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1998)110<0002:NFBDEU>2.3.CO;2.
27. DeCelles, P.G., Gehrels, G.E., Quade, J., and Ojha, T.P., 1998b, Eocene-early Miocene foreland basin development and the history of Himalayan thrusting, western and central Nepal: Tectonics, v. 17, p. 741-765, doi:10.1029/98TC02598.
28. DeCelles, P.G., Gehrels, G.E., Quade, J., Lareau, B., and Spurlin, M., 2000, Tectonic implications of U-Pb zircon ages of the Himalayan orogenic belt in Nepal: Science, v. 288, p. 497-499, doi:10.1126/science.288.5465.497.
29. DeCelles, P.G., Robinson, D.M., Quade, J., Copeland, P., Upreti, B.N., Ojha, T.P., and Garzione, C.N., 2001, Regional structure and stratigraphy of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, far western Nepal: Tectonics, v. 20, p. 487-509, doi:10.1029/2000TC001226.
30. DeCelles, P.G., Gehrels, G.E., Najman, Y., Martin, A.J., Carter, A., and Garzanti, E., 2004, Detrital geochronology and geochemistry of Cretaceous-early Miocene strata of Nepal: Implications for timing and diachroneity of initial Himalayan orogenesis: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 227, p. 313-330, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.08.019.
31. DeCelles, P.G., Kapp, P., Ding, L., and Gehrels, G.E., 2007, Late Cretaceous to Middle Tertiary basin evolution in the central Tibetan Plateau: Changing environments in response to tectonic partitioning, aridification, and regional elevation gain: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 119, p. 654-680, doi:10.1130/B26074.1.
32. Ding, L., Kapp, P., and Wan, X., 2005, Paleocene-Eocene record of ophiolite obduction and initial India-Asia collision, south central Tibet: Tectonics, v. 24, TC2001, doi:10.10.1029 /2004TC001729.
33. Dupont-Nivet, G., Lippert, P., van Hinsbergen, D.J.J., Meijers, M.J.M., and Kapp, P. 2010, Paleolatitude and age of the Indo-Asia collision: Paleomagnetic constraints: Geophysical Journal International, v. 182, p. 1189-1198, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04697.x.
34. Echavarria, L., Hernández, R., Allmendinger, R., and Reynolds, J., 2003, Subandean thrust and fold belt of northwestern Argentina: Geometry and timing of the Andean evolution: The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 87, p. 965-985, doi:10.1306/01200300196.
35. Fuchs, G.R., and Frank, W., 1970, The geology of west Nepal between the rivers Kali Gandaki and Thulo Bheri: Jahrbuch der Geologischen Bundesanstalt, v. 18, 103 p.
36. Galy, A., and France-Lanord, C., 2001, Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes: Geology, v. 29, p. 23-26, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029 <0023:HERITH>2.0.CO;2.
37. Gansser, A., 1964, Geology of the Himalayas: London, Wiley Interscience, 289 p.
38. Gautam, P., and Fujiwara, Y., 2000, Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of Siwalik Group sediments of Karnali River section in western Nepal: Geophysical Journal International, v. 142, p. 812-824, doi:10.1046/j.1365-246x.2000.00185.x.
39. Gehrels, G.E., DeCelles, P.G., Martin, A., Ojha, T.P., Pinhassi, G., and Upreti, B.N., 2003, Initiation of the Himalayan orogen as an early Paleozoic thin-skinned thrust belt: GSA Today, v. 13, no. 9, p. 4-9, doi:10.1130/1052-5173(2003)13<4:IOTHOA>2.0.CO;2.
40. Gehrels, G.E., DeCelles, P.G., Ojha, T.P., and Upreti, B.N., 2006, Geologic and U-Th-Pb geochronologic evidence for early Paleozoic tectonism in the Kathmandu thrust sheet, central Nepal Himalaya: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 118, p. 185-198, doi:10.1130/B25753.1.
41. Gehrels, G.E., Kapp, P., DeCelles, P., Pullen, A., Blakey, R., Weislogel, A., Ding, L., Guynn, J., Martin, A., McQuarrie, N., and Yin, A., 2011, Detrital zircon geochronology of pre-Tertiary strata in the Tibetan-Himalayan orogen: Tectonics, v. 30, TC5016, doi:10.1029/2011TC002868.
42. Green, O.R., Searle, M.P., Corfield, R.I., and Corfield, R.M., 2008, Cretaceous-Tertiary carbonate platform evolution and the age of the India-Asia collision along the Ladakh Himalaya (northwest India): The Journal of Geology, v. 116, p. 331-353, doi:10.1086/588831.
43. Hames, W.E., and Bowring, S.A., 1994, An empirical evaluation of the argon diffusion geometry in muscovite: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 124, p. 161-169, doi:10.1016/0012 -821X(94)00079-4.
44. Hatcher, R.D., and Hooper, R.J., 1992, Evolution of crystalline thrust sheet in the internal parts of mountain chains, in McClay, K.R., ed., Thrust Tectonics: New York, Chapman and Hall, p. 217-233.
45. Herman, F., Copeland, P., Avouac, J.-P., Bollinger, L., Mahéo, G., LeFort, P., Rai, S., Foster, D., Pêcher, A., Stuwe, K., and Henry, P., 2010, Exhumation, crustal deformation, and thermal structure of the Nepal Himalaya derived from the inversion of thermochronological and thermobarometric data and modeling of the topography: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 115, B06407, doi:10.1029/2008JB006126.
46. Hetzel, R., Dunkl, I., Haider, V., Strobl, M., von Eynatten, H., Ding, L., and Frei, D., 2011, Peneplain formation in southern Tibet predates the India-Asia collision and plateau uplift: Geology, v. 39, p. 983-986, doi:10.1130/G32069.1.
47. Hodges, K.V., 2000, Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 112, p. 324-350, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(2000) 112<0324:TOTHAS>2.3.CO;2.
48. Hurford, A.J., 1986, Cooling and uplift patterns in the Lepontine Alps, south central Switzerland, and an age of vertical movement on the Insubric fault line: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 92, p. 413-427, doi:10.1007/BF00374424.
49. Huyghe, P., Galy, A., Mugnier, J.-L., and France-Lanord, C., 2001, Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: Geochemical and sedimentological evidence: Geology, v. 29, p. 1007-1010, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<1007:POTTSA>2.0.CO;2.
50. Huyghe, P., Mugnier, J.-L., Gaurel, A.P., and Delcaillau, B., 2005, Tectonic and climatic control of the changes in the sedimentary record of the Karnali River section (Siwaliks of western Nepal): The Island Arc, v. 14, p. 311-327, doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.2005.00500.x.
51. Johnson, M.R.W., 2005, Structural settings for the contrary metamorphic zonal sequences in the internal and external zones of the Himalaya: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 25, p. 695-706, doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.04.010.
52. Johnson, M.R.W., Oliver, G.J.H., Parrish, R.R., and Johnson, S.P., 2001, Synthrusting metamorphism, cooling, and erosion of the Himalayan Kathmandu Complex, Nepal: Tectonics, v. 20, p. 394-415, doi:10.1029/2001TC900005.
53. Jordan, T.A., and Watts, A.B., 2005, Gravity anomalies, flexure and the elastic thickness structure of the India-Eurasia collisional system: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 236, p. 732-750, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.05.036.
54. Kohn, M.J., 2008, P-T-t data from central Nepal support critical taper and repudiate largescale channel flow of the Greater Himalayan sequence: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 120, p. 259-273, doi:10.1130/B26252.1.
55. Kohn, M.J., Wieland, M., Parkinson, C.D., and Upreti, B.N., 2004, Miocene faulting at plate tectonic velocity in the Himalaya of central Nepal: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 228, p. 299-310, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.10.007.
56. Kohn, M.J., Paul, S.K., and Corrie, S.L., 2010, The lower Lesser Himalayan sequence: A Paleoproterozoic arc on the northern margin of the Indian plate: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 122, p. 323-335, doi:10.1130/B26587.1.
57. Koons, P.O., 1990, Two-sided orogen: Collision and erosion from the sandbox to the Southern Alps, New Zealand: Geology, v. 18, p. 679-682, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018 <0679:TSOCAE>2.3.CO;2.
58. Larson, K.P., Godin, L., and Price, R.A., 2010, Relationships between displacement and distortion in orogens: Linking the Himalayan foreland and hinterland in central Nepal: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 122, p. 1116-1134, doi:10.1130/B30073.1.
59. Lavé, J., and Avouac, J.P., 2000, Active folding of fluvial terraces across the Siwaliks Hills, Himalayas of central Nepal: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 105, p. 5735-5770, doi:10.1029 /1999JB900292.
60. Law, R.D., Searle, M.P., and Simpson, R.L., 2004, Strain, deformation temperatures and vorticity of flow at the top of the Greater Himalayan slab, Everest Massif, Tibet: Journal of the Geological Society of London, v. 161, p. 305-320, doi:10.1144/0016-764903-047.
61. Leech, M.L., Singh, S., Jain, A.K., Klemperer, S.L., and Manickavasagam, R.M., 2005, The onset of India-Asia continental collision: Early, steep subduction required by the timing of UHP metamorphism in the western Himalaya: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 234, p. 83-97, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.02.038.
62. LeFort, P., 1975, Himalayas: The collided range: Present knowledge of the continental arc: American Journal of Science, v. 275-A, p. 1-44.
63. LeFort, P., 1986, Metamorphism and magmatism during the Himalayan collision, in Coward, M.P., and Ries, A.C., eds., Collision Tectonics: Geological Society of London Special Publication 19, p. 159-172.
64. Long, S.P., and McQuarrie, N., 2010, Placing limits on channel flow: Insights from the Bhutan Himalaya: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 290, p. 375-390, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.12.033.
65. Long, S.P., McQuarrie, N., Tobgay, T., and Grujic, D., 2011, Geometry and crustal shortening of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt in Bhutan: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 123, p. 1406-1426, doi:10.1130/B30203.1.
66. Lyon-Caen, H., and Molnar, P., 1985, Gravity anomalies, flexure of the Indian plate, and the structure, support and evolution of the Himalaya and Ganga Basin: Tectonics, v. 4, p. 513-538, doi:10.1029/TC004i006p00513.
67. Martin, A.J., DeCelles, P.G., Gehrels, P.G., Patchett, P.J., and Isachsen, C., 2005, Isotopic and structural constraints on the location of the Main Central thrust in the Annapurna Range, central Nepal Himalaya: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 117, p. 926- 944, doi:10.1130/B25646.1.
68. Martin, A.J., Burgy, K.D., Kaufman, A.J., and Gehrels, G.E., 2011, Stratigraphic and tectonic implications of field and isotopic constraints on depositional ages of Proterozoic Lesser Himalayan rocks in central Nepal: Precambrian Research, v. 185, p. 1-17, doi:10.1016/j. precamres.2010.11.003.
69. McQuarrie, N., Horton, B.K., Zandt, G., Beck, S., and DeCelles, P.G., 2005, Lithospheric evolution of the Andean fold-thrust belt, Bolivia, and the origin of the central Andean plateau: Tectonophysics, v. 399, p. 15-37.
70. McQuarrie, N., Barnes, J., and Ehlers, T.A., 2008, Geometric, kinematic and erosional history of the central Andean Plateau (15-177deg;S), northern Bolivia: Tectonics, v. 27, TC3007, doi:10.1029/2006TC002054.
71. Mitra, G., 1978, Ductile deformation zones and mylonites: The mechanical processes involved in the deformation of crystalline basement rocks: American Journal of Science, v. 278, p. 1057-1084, doi:10.2475/ajs.278.8.1057.
72. Murphy, M.A., and Copeland, P., 2005, Transtensional deformation in the central Himalaya and its role in accommodating growth of the Himalayan orogen: Tectonics, v. 24, TC4012, doi:10.1029/2004TC001659.
73. Murphy, M.A., and Yin, A., 2003, Structural evolution and sequence of thrusting in the Tethyan fold-thrust belt and Indus-Yalu suture zone, southwest Tibet: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 115, p. 21-34, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2003)115<0021:SEASOT> 2.0.CO;2.
74. Myrow, P.M., Hughes, N.C., Paulsen, T.S., Williams, I.S., Parcha, S.K., Thompson, K.R., Bowring, S.A., Peng, S.-C., and Ahluwalia, A.D., 2003, Integrated tectonostratigraphic analysis of the Himalaya and implications for its tectonic reconstruction: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 212, p. 433-441, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00280-2.
75. Myrow, P.M., Hughes, N.C., Goodge, J.W., Fanning, C.M., Williams, I.S., Peng, S., Bhargava, O.N., Parcha, S.K., and Pogue, K.R., 2010, Extraordinary transport and mixing of sediment across Himalayan central Gondwana during the Cambrian-Ordovician: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 122, p. 1660-1670, doi:10.1130/B30123.1.
76. Najman, Y., 2006, The detrital record of orogenesis: A review of approaches and techniques used in the Himalayan sedimentary basins: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 72, p. 1-72.
77. Najman, Y., and Garzanti, E., 2000, Reconstructing early Himalayan tectonic evolution and paleogeography from Tertiary foreland basin sedimentary rocks, northern India: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 112, p. 435-449, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112 <435:REHTEA>2.0.CO;2.
78. Najman, Y.M.R., Pringle, M.S., Johnson, M.W.R., Roberson, A.H.F., and Wijbrans, J.R., 1997, Laser 40Ar/39Ar dating of single detrital muscovite grains from early foreland basin deposits in India: Implications for early Himalayan evolution: Geology, v. 25, p. 535- 538, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0535:LAADOS>2.3.CO;2.
79. Najman, Y., Johnson, C., White, N.M., and Oliver, G., 2004, Constraints on foreland basin and orogenic evolution from detrital mineral fission track analyses and sediment facies of the Himalayan foreland basin, NW India: Basin Research, v. 16, p. 1-24, doi:10.1111 /j.1365-2117.2004.00223.x.
80. Najman, Y., Carter, A., Oliver, G., and Garzanti, E., 2005, Provenance of Eocene foreland basin sediments, Nepal: Constraints to the timing and diachroneity of early Himalayan orogenesis: Geology, v. 33, p. 309-312, doi:10.1130/G21161.1.
81. Najman, Y., Bickle, M., Garzanti, E., Pringle, M., Barfod, D., Brozovic, N., Burbank, D., and Ando, S., 2009, Reconstructing the exhumation history of the Lesser Himalaya, NW India, from a multitechnique provenance study of the foreland basin Siwalik Group: Tectonics, v. 28, TC5018, doi:10.1029/2009TC002506.
82. Najman, Y., Appel, E., Boudagher-Fadel, M., Bown, P., Carter, A., Garzanti, E., Godin, L., Han, J., Liebke, U., Oliver, G., Parrish, R., and Vezzoli, G., 2010, Timing of India-Asia collision: Geological, biostratigraphic, and palaeomagnetic constraints: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 115, B12416, doi:10.1029/2010JB007673.
83. Nakayama, K., and Ulak, P., 1999, Evolution of fluvial style in the Siwalik Group in the foothills of the Nepal Himalaya: Sedimentary Geology, v. 125, p. 205-224, doi:10.1016 /S0037-0738(99)00012-3.
84. Ni, J., and Barazangi, M., 1984, Seismotectonics of the Himalayan collision zone: Geometry of the underthrusting Indian plate beneath the Himalaya: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 89, p. 1147-1163, doi:10.1029/JB089iB02p01147.
85. Northrup, C.J., 1996, Structural expressions and tectonic implications of general noncoaxial flow in the midcrust of a collisional orogen: The northern Scandinavian Caledonides: Tectonics, v. 15, p. 490-505, doi:10.1029/95TC02951.
86. Ojha, T.P., Butler, R.F., Quade, J., DeCelles, P.G., Richards, D., and Upreti, B.N., 2000, Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group at Khutia Khola, far western Nepal: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 112, p. 424-434, doi:10.1130/0016 -7606(2000)112<424:MPSOTN>2.0.CO;2.
87. Ojha, T.P., Butler, R.F., DeCelles, P.G., and Quade, J., 2009, Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene foreland basin deposits of Nepal: Basin Research, v. 21, p. 61-90, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2008.00374x.
88. Oncken, O., Hindle, D., Kley, J., Elger, K., Victor, P., and Schemmann, K., 2006, Deformation of the Central Andean upper plate system: Facts, fiction, and constraints for plateau models, in Oncken, O., Chong, G., Franz, G., Giese, P., Götze, H.-J., Ramos, V.A., Srecker, M.R., and Wigger, P., eds., The Andes. Active Subduction Orogeny: Frontiers in Earth Sciences Series: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 3-27.
89. Pandey, M.R., Tandukar, R.P., Avouac, J.P., Vergne, J., and Héritier, T., 1999, Seismotectonics of the Nepal Himalaya from a local seismic network: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 17, p. 703-712, doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(99)00034-6.
90. Parrish, R.R., and Hodges, K.V., 1996, Isotopic constraints on the age and provenance of the Lesser and Greater Himalayan sequences, Nepalese Himalaya: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 108, p. 904-911, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0904:ICOTAA>2.3 .CO;2.
91. Passchier, C.W., and Trouw, R.A.J., 1996, Micro-Tectonics: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 289 p.
92. Patel, R.C., Singh, S., Asokan, A., Manickavasagam, R.M., and Jain, A.K., 1993, Extensional tectonics in the Himalayan orogen, Zanskar, in Treloar, P.J., and Searle, M.P., eds., Himalayan Tectonics: Geological Society of London Special Publication 74, p. 445-459.
93. Pearson, O.N., and DeCelles, P.G., 2005, Structural geology and regional tectonic signifi-cance of the Ramgarh thrust, Himalayan fold-thrust belt of Nepal: Tectonics, v. 24, TC4008, doi:10.1029/2003TC001617.
94. Quade, J., Cater, J.M.L., Ojha, T.P., Adam, J., and Harrison, T.M., 1995, Late Miocene environmental change in Nepal and the northern Indian subcontinent: Stable isotopic evidence from paleosols: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 107, p. 1381-1397, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1995)107<1381:LMECIN>2.3.CO;2.
95. Quade, J., Roe, L., DeCelles, P.G., and Ojha, T.P., 1997, The late Neogene 87Sr/86Sr record of lowland Himalayan rivers: Science, v. 276, p. 1828-1831, doi:10.1126/science.276.5320.1828.
96. Rahl, J.M., Haines, S.H., and van der Pluijm, B.A., 2011, Links between orogenic wedge deformation and erosional exhumation: Evidence from illite age analysis of fault rock and detrital thermochronology of syn-tectonic conglomerates in the Spanish Pyrenees: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 307, p. 180-190, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.04.036.
97. Ratschbacher, L., Frisch, W., and Guanghua, L., 1994, Distributed deformation in southern and western Tibet during and after the India-Asia collision: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 99, p. 19,917-19,945, doi:10.1029/94JB00932.
98. Ravikant, V., Wu, F.-Y., and Ji, W.-Q., 2011, U-Pb age and Hf isotopic constraints of detrital zircons from the Himalayan foreland Subathu sub-basin on the Tertiary palaeogeography of the Himalaya: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 304, p. 356-368, doi:10.1016/j .epsl.2011.02.009.
99. Robert, X., van der Beek, P., Braun, J., Perry, C., Dubille, M., and Mugnier, J.-L., 2009, Assessing Quaternary reactivation of the Main Central thrust zone (central Nepal Himalaya): New thermochronologic data and numerical modeling: Geology, v. 37, p. 731-734, doi:10.1130/G25736A.1.
100. Robinson, D.M., 2008, Forward modeling the kinematic sequence of the central Himalayan thrust belt, western Nepal: Geosphere, v. 4, p. 785-801, doi:10.1130/GES00163.1.
101. Robinson, D.M., and Pearson, O.N., 2006, Exhumation of Greater Himalayan rock along the Main Central thrust, Nepal: Implications for channel flow, in Law, R.D., Searle, M.P., and Godin, L., eds., Channel Flow, Extrusion, and Exhumation in Continental Collision Zones: Geological Society of London Special Publication 268, p. 255-268.
102. Robinson, D.M., DeCelles, P.G., Patchett, P.J., and Garzione, C.N., 2001, The kinematic history of the Nepalese Himalaya interpreted from Nd isotopes: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 192, p. 507-521, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00451-4.
103. Robinson, D.M., DeCelles, P.G., Garzione, C.N., Pearson, O.N., Harrison, T.M., and Catlos, E.J., 2003, Kinematic model for the Main Central thrust in Nepal: Geology, v. 31, p. 359-362, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0359:KMFTMC>2.0.CO;2.
104. Robinson, D.M., DeCelles, P.G., and Copeland, P., 2006, Tectonic evolution of the Himalayan thrust belt in western Nepal: Implications for channel flow models: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 118, p. 865-885, doi:10.1130/B25911.1.
105. Rohrmann, A., Kapp, P., Carrapa, B., Reiners, P.W., Guynn, J., Ding, L., and Heizler, M., 2012, Thermochronologic evidence for plateau formation in central Tibet by 45 Ma: Geology, v. 40, p. 187-190, doi:10.1130/G32530.1.
106. Sakai, H., 1983, Geology of the Tansen Group of the Lesser Himalaya in Nepal: Memoirs of the Faculty of Science: Kyushu University [D], v. 25, p. 27-74.
107. Sakai, H., 1989, Rifting of the Gondwanaland and uplifting of the Himalayas recorded in Mesozoic and Tertiary fluvial sediments in the Nepal Himalaya, in Taira, A., and Masuda, F., eds., Sedimentary Facies in the Active Plate Margin: Tokyo, Japan, Terra Science, p. 723-732.
108. Sakai, H., Takigami, Y., Nakamuta, Y., and Nomura, H., 1999, Inverted metamorphism in the pre- Siwalik foreland basin sediments beneath the crystalline nappe, western Nepal Himalaya: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 17, p. 727-739, doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(99)00035-8.
109. Schelling, D., and Arita, K., 1991, Thrust tectonics, crustal shortening, and the structure of the far-eastern Nepal Himalaya: Tectonics, v. 10, p. 851-862, doi:10.1029/91TC01011.
110. Searle, M.P., Law, R.D., Godin, L., Larson, K.P., Streule, M.M., Cottle, J.M., and Jessup, M.J., 2008, Defining the Himalayan Main Central thrust in Nepal: Journal of the Geological Society of London, v. 165, p. 523-534, doi:10.1144/0016-76492007-081.
111. Sinclair, H.D., Gibson, M., Naylor, M., and Morris, R.G., 2005, Asymmetric growth of the Pyrenees revealed through measurement and modeling of orogenic fluxes: American Journal of Science, v. 305, p. 369-406, doi:10.2475/ajs.305.5.369.
112. Szulc, A.G., Najman, Y., Sinclair, H.D., Pringle, M., Bickle, M., Chapman, H., Garzanti, E., Ando, S., Huyghe, P., Mugnier, J.-L., Ojha, T., and DeCelles, P., 2006, Tectonic evolution of the Himalaya constrained by detrital 40Ar-39Ar, Sm-Nd and petrographic data from the Siwalik foreland basin succession, SW Nepal: Basin Research, v. 18, p. 375-391, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00307.x.
113. Thiede, R.C., Bookhagen, B., Arrowsmith, J.R., Sobel, E.R., and Strecker, M.R., 2004, Climatic control on rapid exhumation along the southern Himalayan Front: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 222, p. 791-806, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.03.015.
114. Thiede, R.C., Ehlers, T.A., Bookhagen, B., and Strecker, M.R., 2009, Erosional variability along the northwest Himalaya: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 114, F01015, doi:10.1029 /2008JF001010.
115. Turcotte, D., and Schubert, G., 1982, Geodynamics: New York, John Wiley, 450 p.
116. Upreti, B.N., 1996, Stratigraphy of the western Nepal Lesser Himalaya: A synthesis: Journal of Nepal Geological Society, v. 13, p. 11-28
117. Upreti, B.N., 1999, An overview of the stratigraphy and tectonics of the Nepal Himalaya: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 17, p. 577-606, doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(99)00047-4.
118. Upton, P., Mueller, K., and Chen, Y.-G., 2009, Three-dimensional numerical models with varied material properties and erosion rates: Implications for the mechanics and kinematics of compressive wedges: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 114, B04408, doi:10.1029/2008JB005708.
119. van der Beek, P., Robert, X., Mugnier, J.-L., Bernet, M., Huyghe, P., and Labrin, E., 2006, Late-Miocene-Recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal: Basin Research, v. 18, p. 413-434, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00305.x.
120. Vannay, J.-C., and Hodges, K.V., 1996, Tectonometamorphic evolution of the Himalayan metamorphic core between the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri, central Nepal: Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 14, p. 635-656, doi:10.1046/j.1525-1314.1996.00426.x.
121. Wang, J., Hu, X., Jansa, L.F., and Huang, Z., 2011, Provenance of the Upper Cretaceous-Eocene deep-water sandstones in Sangdanlin, southern Tibet: Constraints on the timing of initial India-Asia collision: The Journal of Geology, v. 119, p. 293-309, doi:10.1086/659145.
122. Webb, A.A.G., Yin, A., Harrison, T.M., Célérier, J., Gehrels, G.E., Manning, C.E., and Grove, M., 2011, Cenozoic tectonic history of the Himachal Himalaya (northwestern India) and its constraints on the formation mechanism of the Himalayan orogen: Geosphere, v. 7, p. 1013-1061, doi:10.1130/GES00627.1.
123. Whipp, D.M., Ehlers, T.A., Blythe, A., Huntington, K., Hodges, K., and Burbank, D.W., 2007, Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 2. Thermokinematic and thermochronometer age prediction model: Tectonics, v. 26, TC3003, doi:10.1029 /2006TC001991.
124. Willett, S.D., Beaumont, C., and Fullsack, P., 1993, Mechanical model for the tectonics of doubly vergent orogens: Geology, v. 21, p. 371-174, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0371: MMFTTO>2.3.CO;2.
125. Wobus, C.W., Hodges, K.V., and Whipple, K.X., 2003, Has focused denudation sustained active thrusting at the Himalayan topographic front?: Geology, v. 31, p. 861-864, doi:10.1130 /G19730.1.
126. Zhang, J., and Guo, L., 2007, Structure and geochronology of the southern Xainza-Dinggye rift and its relationship to the South Tibetan detachment system: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 29, p. 722-736, doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.05.003.
127. Zhu, B., Kidd, W.S.F., Rowley, D.B., Currie, B.S., and Shafique, N. 2005, Age of initiation of the India-Asia collision in the east-central Himalaya: The Journal of Geology, v. 113, p. 265-285, doi:10.1086/428805.