Guidelines For the Management of Severe Head Injury, 2nd Edition guidelines from the Guidelines Committee on the Management of Severe Head Injury, the Japan Society of Neurotraumatology

Neurologia Medico-Chirurgica

Volumn 52, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 1-30

  Shigemori, Minoru ^a   Abe, Toshiaki ^a   Aruga, Tohru ^a   Ogawa, Takeki ^a   Okudera, Hiroshi ^a   Ono, Junichi ^a   Onuma, Takehide ^a   Katayama, Yoichi ^a   Kawai, Nobuyuki ^a   Kawamata, Tatsuro ^a   Kohmura, Eiji ^a   Sakaki, Toshisuke ^a   Sakamoto, Tetsuya ^a   Sasaki, Tatsuya ^a   Sato, Akira ^a   Shiogai, Toshiyuki ^a   Shima, Katsuji ^a   Sugiura, Kazuo ^a   Takasato, Yoshio ^a   Tokutomi, Takashi ^a   Tomita, Hiroki ^a   Toyoda, Izumi ^a   Nagao, Seigo ^a   Nakamura, Hiroshi ^a   Park, Young soo ^a   Matsumae, Mitsunori ^a   Miki, Tamotsu ^a   Miyake, Yasushi ^a   Murai, Hisayuki ^a   Murakami, Shigeyuki ^a   Yamaura, Akira ^a   Yamaki, Tarumi ^a   Yamada, Kazuo ^a   Yoshimine, Toshiki ^a   more..

^a JIKEI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

Author keywords

guidelines; head injury; management; neurotrauma; traumatic brain injury

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BRAIN INJURY; EMERGENCY HEALTH SERVICE; HEAD INJURY; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; JAPAN; METHODOLOGY; NEUROSURGERY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; STANDARD;

BRAIN INJURIES; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICES; HUMANS; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; JAPAN; NEUROSURGICAL PROCEDURES; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX;

EID: 84872767960     PISSN: 04708105     EISSN: 13498029     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2176/nmc.52.1     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. Sugiura K, Furuya R, Kunimoto K, Endoh S, Tachisawa T, Muraoka K: Significance of different levels of the Edinburgh 2 Coma Scale calculated from the outcome of neurosurgical patients. Neurosurgery 31: 1023-1029, 1992.
2. Aibiki M, Maekawa S, Yokono S: Moderate hypothermia improves imbalances of thromboxane A2 and prostaglandin I2 production after traumatic brain injury in humans. Crit Care Med 28: 3902-3906, 2000.
3. Albanèse J, Arnaud S, Rey M, Thomachot L, Alliez B, Martin C: Ketamine decreases intracranial pressure and electroencephalographic activity in traumatic brain injury patients during propofol sedation. Anesthesiology 87: 1328-1334, 1997.
4. Alderson P, Roberts I: Corticosteroids in acute traumatic brain injury: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 314: 1855-1859, 1997.
5. American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: Guidelines for the use of parenteral and enteral nutrition in adults and pediatric patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 26 (1 Suppl): 1SA-138SA, 2002.
6. Balestreri M, Czosnyka M, Steiner LA, Schmidt E, Smielewski P, Matta B, Pickard JD: Intracranial hypertension: what additional information can be derived from ICP waveform after head injury? Acta Neurochir (Wien) 146: 131-141, 2004.
7. Bazarian JJ: Corticosteroids for traumatic brain injury. Ann Emerg Med 40: 515-517, 2002.
8. Biswas AK, Bruce DA, Sklar FH, Bokovoy JL, Sommerauer JF: Treatment of acute traumatic brain injury in children with moderate hypothermia improves intracranial hypertension. Crit Care Med 30: 2742-2751, 2002.
9. Borzotta AP, Pennings J, Papasadero B, Paxton J, Mardesic S, Borzotta R, Parrott A, Bledsoe F: Enteral versus parenteral nutrition after severe closed head injury. J Trauma 37: 459-468, 1994.
10. Bourgoin A: Safety of sedation with ketamine in severe head injury patients: comparison with sufentanil. Crit Care Med 31: 711-717, 2003.
11. Braakman R, Schouten HJ, Blaauw-van Dishoeck M, Minderhoud JM: Megadose steroids in severe head injury. Results of a prospective double-blind clinical trial. J Neurosurg 58: 326-330, 1983.
12. Brawanski A, Faltermeier R, Rothoerl RD, Woertgen C: Comparison of near-infrared spectroscopyand tissue PO2 time series in patients after severe head injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 22: 605-611, 2002.
13. Bruder N, Dumont JC, François G: Evolution of energy expenditure and nitrogen excretion in severe head-injured patients. Crit Care Med 19: 43-48, 1991.
14. Bullock R, Chesnut RM, Clifton G, Chajar J, Marion DW, Narayan RK, Newell DW, Pitts LH, Rosner MJ, Wilberger JE: Guidelines for the management of severe head injury. J Neurotrauma 13: 643-734, 1996.
15. Burger R, Vince GH, Meixensberger J, Roosen K: Bilateral monitoring of CBF and tissue oxygen pressure in the penumbra of focal mass lesion in rats. Acta Neurochir Suppl 71: 157-161, 1998.
16. Chambers IR, Treadwell L, Mendelow AD: Determination of threshold levels of cerebral perfusion pressure and intracranial pressure in severe head injury by using receiver-operating characteristic curves: an observational study in 291 patients. J Neurosurg 94: 412-416, 2001.
17. Clifton GL, Miller ER, Choi SC, Levin HS, McCauley S, Smith KR Jr, Muizelaar JP, Wagner FC Jr, Marion DW, Luerssen TG, Chesnut RM, Schwartz M: Lack of effect of induction of hypothermia after acute brain injury. New Eng J Med 344: 556-563, 2001.
18. Clifton GL, Robertson CS, Contant CF: Enternal hyperalimentation in head injury. J Neurosurg 62: 186-193, 1985.
19. Clifton GL, Robertson CS, Grossman RG, Hodge S, Foltz R, Garza C: The metabolic response to severe head injury. J Neurosurg 60: 687-696, 1984.
20. Coles JP, Minhas PS, Fryer TD, Smielewski P, Aigbirihio F, Donovan T, Downey SP, Williams G, Chatfield D, Matthews JC, Gupta AK, Carpenter TA, Clark JC, Pickard JD, Menon DK: Effect of hyperventilation on cerebral blood flow in traumatic head injury: clinical relevance and monitoring correlates. Crit Care Med 30: 1950-1959, 2002.
21. Cooper PR, Moody S, Clark WK, Kirkpatrick J, Maravilla K, Gould AL, Drane W: Dexamethasone and severe head injury. A prospective double-blind study. J Neurosurg 64: 81-88, 1979.
22. Cristofori L, Tavazzi B, Gambin R, Vagnozzi R, Vivenza C, Amorini AM, Di Pierro D, Fazzina G, Lazzarino G: Early onset of lipid peroxidation after human traumatic brain injury: a fatal limitation for the free radical scavenger pharmacological therapy? J Investig Med 49: 450-458, 2001.
23. Cruz J: Adverse effects of pentobarbital on cerebral venous oxygenation of comatose patients with acute traumatic brain swelling: relationship on outcome. J Neurosurg 85: 758-761, 1996.
24. Cruz J: The first decade of continuous monitoring of jugular bulb oxyhemoglobin saturation: management strategies and clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 26: 344-351, 1998.
25. Czosnyka M, Czosnyka Z, Pickard JD: Laboratory testing of three intracranial pressure microtransducers: technical report. Neurosurgery 38: 219-224, 1996.
26. Czosnyka M, Pickard JD: Monitoring and interpretation of intracranial pressure. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75: 813-821, 2004.
27. Czosnyka M, Smielewski P, Kirkpatrick P, Menon DK, Pickard JD: Monitoring of cerebral autoregulation in head-injured patients. Stroke 27: 1829-1834, 1996.
28. Dearden NM, Gibson JS, McDowall DG, Gibson RM, Cameron MM: Effect of high-dose dexamethasone on outcome from severe head injury. J Neurosurg 64: 81-88, 1986.
29. Doppenberg EM, Bullock R: Clinical neuroprotection trials in severe traumatic brain injury: lessons from previous studies. J Neurotrauma 14: 71-80, 1997.
30. Edwards P, Arango M, Balica L, Cottingham R, El-Sayed H, Farrell B, Fernandes J, Gogichaisvili T, Golden N, Hartzenberg B, Husain M, Ulloa MI, Jerbi Z, Khamis H, Komolafe E, Laloë V, Lomas G, Ludwig S, Mazairac G, Muñoz Sanchéz Mde L, Nasi L, Olldashi F, Plunkett P, Roberts I, Sandercock P, Shakur H, Soler C, Stocker R, Svoboda P, Trenkler S, Venkataramana NK, Wasserberg J, Yates D, Yutthakasemsunt S; CRASH trial collaborators: Final results of MRC CRASH, a randomised placebo-controlled trial of intravenous corticosteroid in adults with head injury-outcomes at 6 months. Lancet 365: 1957-1959, 2005.
31. Eizenberg HM, Frankowski RF, Contant CF, Marshall LF, Walker MD: High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury. J Neurosurg 69: 15-23, 1988.
32. Fàbregas N, Gambús PL, Valero R, Carrero EJ, Salvador L, Zavala E, Ferrer E: Can bispectral index monitoring predict recovery of consciousness in patients with severe brain injury? Anesthesiology 101: 43-51, 2004.
33. Feig PU, McCurdy DK: The hypertonic state. N Engl J Med 297: 1444-1454, 1977.
34. Feldman Z, Kanter MJ, Robertson CS, Contant CF, Hayes C, Sheinberg MA, Villareal CA, Narayan RK, Grossman RG: Effect of head elevation on intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, and cerebral blood flow in head-injured patients. J Neurosurg 76: 207-211, 1992.
35. Firschung R, Woischneck D, Klein S, Reissberg S, Döhring W, Peters B: Classification of severe head injury based on magnetic resonance imaging. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 143: 263-271, 2001.
36. Ghajar J, Hariri RJ, Narayan RK, Iacono LA, Firlik K, Patterson RH: Survey of critical care management of comatose, head-injured patients in the United States. Crit Care Med 23: 560-567, 1995.
37. Giannotta SL, Weiss MH, Apuzzo ML, Martin E: High dose glucocorticoids in the management of severe head injury. Neurosurgery 15: 497-501, 1984.
38. Glenn TC, Kelly DF, Boscardin WJ, McArthur DL, Vespa P, Oertel M, Hovda DA, Bergsneider M, Hillered L, Martin NA: Energy dysfunction as a predictor of outcome after moderate or severe head injury: indices of oxygen, glucose, and lactate metabolism. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 23: 1239-1250, 2003.
39. Gopinath SP, Valadka AB, Uzura M, Robertson CS: Comparison of jugular venous oxygen saturation and brain tissue PO2 as monitors of cerebral ischemia after head injury. Crit Care Med 27: 2337-2345, 1999.
40. Grahm TW, Zadrozny DB, Harrington T: The benefits of early jejunal hyperalimentation in the head injury. Neurosurgery 25: 729-735, 1989.
41. Guerra WK: Surgical decompression for traumatic brain swelling: indication and results. J Neurosurg 90: 187-196, 1999.
42. Gupta AK, Zygun DA, Johnston AJ, Steiner LA, Al-Rawi PG, Chatfield D, Shepherd E, Kirkpatrick PJ, Hutchinson PJ, Menon DK: Extracellular brain pH and outcome following severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 21: 678-684, 2004.
43. Harris OA, Colford JM Jr, Good MC, Matz PG: The role of hypothermia in the management of severe brain injury: a meta-analysis. Arch Neurol 59: 1077-1083, 2002.
44. Hoelper BM, Reinert MM, Zauner A, Doppenberg E, Bullock R: rCBF in hemorrhagic, non-hemorrhagic and mixed contusion after severe head injury and its effect on perilesional cerebral blood flow. Acta Neurochir Suppl 76: 21-25, 2000.
45. Iwase M, Takayama N, Tanaka T, Kawamoto K: Clinical evaluation of nitric oxide and cytokines in patients with severe head injury. Neurosurgical Emergency 4: 27-33, 1999.
46. James HE: Methodology for the control of intracranial pressure with hypertonic mannitol. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 51: 161-172, 1980.
47. James HE, Langfitt TW, Kumar VS, Ghostine SY: Treatment of intracranial hypertension. Analysis of 105 consecutive, continuous recordings of intracranial pressre. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 36: 189-200, 1977.
48. Jensen RL, Hahn YS, Ciro E: Risk factors on intracranial pressure monitoring in children with fiberoptic devices: a critical review. Surg Neurol 47: 16-22, 1997.
49. Jiang J, Yu M, Zhu C: Effect of long-term mild hypothermia therapy in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: 1-Year follow-up review of 87 cases. J Neurosurg 93: 546-549, 2000.
50. Juul N, Morris GF, Marshall SB, Marshall LF: Intracranial hypertension and cerebral perfusion pressure: influence on neurological deterioration and outcome in severe head injury. The Executive Committee of the International Selfotel Trial. J Neurosurg 92: 1-6, 2000.
51. Kaufman AM, Cardoso ER: Aggravation of vasogenic cerebral edema by multi-dose mannitol. J Neurosurg 77: 584-589, 1992.
52. Kaups KL, Davis JW, Parks SN: Routinely repeated computed tomography after blunt head trauma: does it benefit patients? J Trauma 56: 475-480, 2004.
53. Khanna S, Davis D, Peterson B, Fisher B, Tung H, O'Quigley J, Deutsch R: Use of hypertonic saline in the treatment of severe refractory posttraumatic intracranial hypertension in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med 28: 1144-1151, 2000.
54. Lam AM, Winn HR, Cullen BF, Sundling N: Hyperglycemia and neurological outcome in patients with head injury. J Neurosurg 75: 545-551, 1991.
55. Lang EW, Chesnut RM: Intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in severe head injury. New Horizons 3: 400-409, 1995.
56. Lang EW, Lagopoulos J, Griffith J, Yip K, Mudaliar Y, Mehdorn HM, Dorsch NW: Noninvasive cerebrovascular autoregulation assessment in traumatic brain injury: validation and utility. J Neurotrauma 20: 69-75, 2003.
57. Lannoo E, Colardyn F, De Deyne C, Vandekerckhove T, Jannes C, De Soete G: Cerebral perfusion pressure and intracranial pressure in relation to neuropsychological outcome. Intensive Care Med 24: 236-241, 1998.
58. Lobato RD, Sarabia R, Cordobes F, Rivas JJ, Adrados A, Cabrera A, Gomez P, Madera A, Lamas E: Posttraumatic cerebral hemospheric swelling. Analysis of 55 cases studied with computed tomography. J Neurosurg 68: 417-422, 1988.
59. Marmarou A, Fatouros PP, Barzó P, Portella G, Yoshihara M, Tsuji O, Yamamoto T, Laine F, Signoretti S, Ward JD, Bullock MR, Young HF: Contribution of edema and cerebral blood volume to traumatic brain swelling in head-injured patientsw. J Neurosurg 93: 183-193, 2000.
60. Marshall LF, Marshall SB, Klauber MR, Van Berkum Clark M, Eisenberg HM, Jane JA, Lussen TG, Marmarou A, Foulkes MA: A new classification of head injury based on computed tomography. J Neurosurg 75 Suppl: S14-S20, 1991.
61. Marshall LF, Marshall SB, Musch B, Means E: Outcome of moderate and severe head injury in patients treated with tirilazad mesylate. J Neurosurg 84: 342A (abstract), 1996.
62. Matsumae M, Ishizaka H, Shiramizu H, Shibata M, Tsugane R: Pupillary abnormality on admission and brain bulging during surgery as unfavorable predictors in patients treated with hypothermia: a retrospective review of 81 patients with severe head injury. Acta Neuroshir 143: 1229-1235, 2001.
63. Mazzini L, Pisano F, Zaccala M, Miscio G, Gareri F, Galante M: Somatosensory and motor evoked potentials at different stages of recovery from severe traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 80: 3339, 1999.
64. McCall M, Jeejeebhoy K, Pencharz P, Moulton R: Effect of neuromuscular blockade on energy ependiture in patients with severe head injury. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 27: 27-35, 2003.
65. McIntyre LA, Fergusson DA, Hébert PC, Moher D, Hutchison JS: Prolonged therapeutic hypothermia after traumatic brain injury in adults: a systematic review. JAMA 289: 2992-2999, 2003.
66. McKinley BA, Parmley CL, Tonneson AS: Standardized management of intracranial pressure: a preliminary clinical trial. J Trauma 46: 271-279, 1999.
67. Meixensberger J, Baunach S, Amschler J, Dings J, Roosen K: Influence of body position on tissue-PO2, cerebral perfusion pressure and intracranial pressure in patients with acute brain injury. Neurol Res 19: 249-253, 1997.
68. Mendelow AD, Teasdale GM, Russell T, Flood J, Patterson J, Murray GD: Effect of mannitol on cerebral blood flow and cerebral perfusion pressure in human head injury. J Neurosurg 63: 43-48, 1985.
69. Mittl RL, Grossman RI, Hiehle JF, Hurst RW, Kauder DR, Gennarelli TA, Alburger GW: Prevalence of MR evidence of diffuse axonal injury in patients with mild head injury and normal head CT findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 15: 1583-1589, 1994.
70. Moro-Sutherland DM, Algren JT, Louis PT, Kozinetz CA, Shook JE: Comparison of intravenous midazolam with pentobarbital for sedation for head computer tomography imaging. Acad Emerg Med 7: 1370-1375, 2000.
71. Muizelaar JP, Marmarou A, Ward JD, Kontos HA, Choi SC, Becker DP, Gruemer H, Young HF: Adverse effects of prolonged hyperventilation in patients with severe head injury: a randomized clinical trial. J Neurosurg 75: 731-739, 1991.
72. Münch E, Horn P, Schürer L, Piepgras A, Paul T, Schmiedek P: Management of severe traumatic brain injury by decompressive craniectomy. Neurosurgery 47: 315-323, 2000.
73. Nordström CH, Messeter K, Sundbärg G, Schalén W, Werner M, Ryding E: Cerebral blood flow, vasoreactivity, and oxygen consumption during barbiturate therapy in severe traumatic brain lesions. J Neurosurg 68: 424-431, 1988.
74. Ohata H, Iida H, Dohi S, Watanabe Y: Intravenous dexmedetomidine inhibits cerebrovascular dilatation induced by isoflurane and sevoflurane in dogs. Anesth Analg 89: 370-377, 1999.
75. Ott L, Annis K, Hatton J, McClain M, Young B: Postpyloric enteral feeding costs for patients with severe head injury: blind placement endoscopy, and PEG/J versus TPN. J Neurotrauma 16: 233-242, 1999.
76. Pittman JE, Sheng H, Pearlstein R, Brinkhous A, Dexter F, Warner DS: Comparison of the effects of propofol and pentobarbital on neurologic outcome and cerebral infarct size after temporary ischemia in the rat. Anesthesiology 87: 1139-1144, 1997.
77. Poon WS, Ng SC, Chan MT, Leung CH, Lam JM: Neurochemical changes in ventilated head-injured patients with cerebral perfusion pressure treatment failure. Acta Neurochir Suppl 81: 335-338, 2002.
78. Pople IK, Muhlbauer MS, Sanford RA, Kirk E: Results and complications of intracranial pressure monitoring in 303 children. Pediatr Neurosurg 23: 64-67, 1995.
79. Raabe A, Grolms C, Sorge O, Zimmermann M, Seifert V: Serum S-100B protein in severe head injury. Neurosurgery 45: 477-483, 1999.
80. Rapp RP, Young B, Twyman D, Bivins BA, Haack D, Tibbs PA, Bean JR: The favorable effect of early parenteral feeding on survival in head-injured patients. J Neurosurg 58: 906-912, 1983.
81. Raurich JM, Ibáñez J: Metabolic rate in severe head trauma. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 18: 521-524, 1994.
82. Reinert M, Barth A, Rothen HU, Schaller B, Takala J, Seiler RW: Effects of cerebral perfusion pressure and increased fraction of inspired oxygen on brain tissue oxygen, lactate and glucose in patients with severe head injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 145: 341-349, 2003.
83. Rhodes LK: Actions of glucocorticoids and related molecules after traumatic brain injury. Curr Opin Crit Care 9: 86-91, 2003.
84. Roberts I, Yates D, Sandercock P, Farrell B, Wasserberg J, Lomas G, Cottingham R, Svoboda P, Brayley N, Mazairac G, Laloë V, Muñoz-Sánchez A, Arango M, Hartzenberg B, Khamis H, Yutthakasemsunt S, Komolafe E, Olldashi F, Yadav Y, Murillo-Cabezas F, Shakur H, Edwards P: CRASH trial collaborators: Effect of intravenous corticosteroids on death within 14 days in 10,008 adults with clinically significant head injury (MRC CRASH trial): randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 364: 1321-1328, 2004.
85. Robertson CS, Valadka AB, Hannay HJ, Contant CF, Gopinath SP, Cormio M, Uzura M, Grossman RG: Prevention of secondary ischemic insults after severe head injury. Crit Care Med 27: 2086-2095, 1999.
86. Rosner MJ, Coley IB: Cerebral perfusion pressure, intracranial pressure, and head elevation. J Neurosurg 65: 636-641, 1986.
87. Rovlias A, Kotsou S: The influence of hyperglycemia on neurological outcome in patients with severe head injury. Neurosurgery 46: 335-343, 2000.
88. Sacks GS, Brown RO, Teaque D, Dickerson RN, Tolley EA, Kudsk KA: Early nutrition support modifies immune function in patients sustaining severe head injury. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 19: 387-392, 1995.
89. Sahuquillo J, Poca MA, Arribas M, Garnacho A, Rubio E: Interhemispheric supratentorial intracranial pressure gradients in head-injured patients: are they clinically important? J Neurosurg 90: 16-26, 1999.
90. Sato M, Tanaka S, Suzuki K, Kohama A, Fujii C: Complications associated with barbiturate therapy. Resuscitation 17: 233-241, 1989.
91. Saul TG, Ducker TB, Salcman M, Carro E: Steroid in severe head injury: a randomized clinical trial. J Neurosurg 54: 596-600, 1981.
92. Schettini A, Stahurski B, Young HF: Osmotic and osmotic loop diuresis in brain surgery. Effects on plasma and CSF electrolytes and ion excretion. J Neurosurg 56: 679-684, 1982.
93. Schwartz ML, Tator CH, Rowed DW, Reid SR, Meguro K, Andrews DF: The University of Toronto head injury treatment study: a prospective randomized comparison of pentobarbital and mannitol. Can J Neurol Sci 11: 434-440, 1984.
94. Segatore M: Corticosteroids and traumatic brain injury: status at the end of the decade of the brain. J Neurosci Nurs 31: 239-250, 1999.
95. Servadei F, Nanni A, Nasi MT, Zappi D, Vergoni G, Giuliani G, Arista A: Evolving brain lesions in the first 12 hours after head injury: analysis of 37 comatose patients. Neurosurgery 37: 899-907, 1995.
96. Shackford SR, Norton CH, Todd MM: Renal, cerebral and pulmonary effects of hypertonic resuscitation in a porcine model of hemorrhagic shock. Surgery 104: 553-560, 1988.
97. Sheinberg M, Kanter MJ, Robertson CS, Contant CF, Narayan RK, Grossman RG: Continuous monitoring of jugular venous oxygen saturation in head-injured patients. J Neurosurg 76: 212-217, 1992.
98. Shiogai T, Nagayama K, Damrinjap G, Saruta K, Hara M, Saito I: Morphological and hemodynamic evaluation by means of transcranial power Doppler imaging in patients with severe head injury. Acta Neurochir Suppl 71: 94-100, 1998.
99. Shiogai T, Nara I, Saruta K, Hara M, Saito I: Continuous monitoring of cerebrospinal fluid acid-base balance and oxygen metabolism in patients with severe head injury: pathophysiology and treatments for cerebral acidosis and ischemia. Acta Neurochir Suppl 75: 49-55, 1999.
100. Shiozaki T, Akai H, Taneda M, Hayakata T, Aoki M, Oda J, Tanaka H, Hiraide A, Shimazu T, Sugimoto H: Delayed hemispheric neuronal loss in severely head-injured patients. J Neurtotrauma 18: 665-674, 2001.
101. Shiozaki T, Hayakata T, Taneda M, Nakajima Y, Hashiguchi N, Fujimi S, Nakamori Y, Tanaka H, Shimazu T, Sugimoto H: A multicenter prospective randomized controlled trial of the efficacy of mild hypothermia for severely head injury patients with low intracranial pressure. J Neurosurg 94: 50-54, 2001.
102. Shiozaki T, Nakajima Y, Taneda M, Tasaki O, Inoue Y, Ikegawa H, Matsushima A, Tanaka H, Shimazu T, Sugimoto H: Efficacy of moderate hypothermia in patients with severe head injury and intracranial hypertension refractory to mild hypothermia. J Neurosurg 99: 47-51, 2003.
103. Shiozaki T, Sugimoto H, Taneda M, Yoshida H, Iwai A, Yoshioka T, Sugimoto T: Effect of mild hypothermia on uncontrollable intracranial hypotension after severe head injury. J Neurosurg 79: 363-368, 1993.
104. Smith HP, Kelly DL Jr, McWhorter JM, Armstrong D, Johnson R, Transou C, Howard G: Comparison of mannitol regimens in patients with severe head injury undergoing intracranial monitoring. J Neurosurg 65: 820-824, 1986.
105. Suchner U, Senftleben U, Eckart T, Scholz MR, Beck K, Murr R, Enzenbach R, Peter K: Enteral versus parenteral nutrition: effect on gastrointestinal function and metabolism. Nutrition 12: 13-22, 1996.
106. Talke P, Bickler PE: Effects of dextmedetomidine on hypoxia-evoked glutamate release and glutamate receptor activity in hippocampal slices. Anesthesiology 85: 551-557, 1996.
107. Taylor SJ, Fettes SB, Jewkes C, Nelson RJ: Prospective, randomized, controlled trial to determine the effect of early enhanced enteral nutrition on clinical outcome in mechanically ventilated patients suffering head injury. Crit Care Med 27: 2525-2531, 1999.
108. Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, Keihm J, Chabal S, Winn HR: A randomized, double-blind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures. N Engl J Med 323: 497-502, 1990.
109. Tokutomi T, Morimoto K, Miyagi T, Yamaguchi S, Ishikawa K, Shigemori M: Optimal temperature for the management of severe traumatic brain injury: effect of hypothermia on intracranial pressure, systemic and intracranial hemodynamics, and metabolism. Neurosurgery 52: 102-112, 2003.
110. Tornheim PA, McLaurin RL, Sawaya R: Effect of furosemide on experimental traumatic cerebral edema. Neurosurgery 4: 48-51, 1979.
111. Unterberg AW, Kiening KL, Härtl R, Bardt T, Sarrafzadeh AS, Lanksch WR: Multimodal monitoring in patients with head injury: evaluation of the effects of treatment on cerebral oxygenation. J Trauma 42: S32-S37, 1997.
112. Valadka AB, Goodman JC, Gopinath SP, Uzura M, Robertson CS: Compalison of brain tissue oxygen tension to microdialysis-based measures of cerebral ischemia in fatality head-injured humans. J Neurotrauma 15: 509-519, 1998.
113. van Santbrink H, Schouten JW, Steyerberg EW, Avezaat CJ, Maas AI: Serial transcranial Doppler measurements in traumatic brain injury with special focus on the early posttraumatic period. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 144: 1141-1149, 2002.
114. Vespa PM, Boscardin WJ, Hovda DA, McArthur DL, Nuwer MR, Martin NA, Nenov V, Glenn TC, Bergsneider M, Kelly DF, Becker DP: Early and persistent impaired percent alpha variability on continuous electroencephalography monitoring as predictive of poor outcome after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 97: 84-92, 2002.
115. Ward JD, Becker DP, Miller JD, Choi SC, Marmarou A, Wood C, Newlon PG, Keenan R: Failure of prophylactic barbiturate coma in the treatment of severe head injury. J Neurosurg 62: 383-388, 1985.
116. Wardlaw JM, Stathasm PF: How often is haemosiderin not visible on routine MRI following traumatic intracerebral haemorrhage? Neuroradiology 42: 81-84, 2000.
117. Winkelman C: Effect of backrest position on intracranial and cerebral perfusion pressures in traumatically brain-injured adults. Am J Crit Care 9: 373-380, 2000.
118. Wintermark M, Chioléro R, van Melle G, Revelly JP, Porchet F, Regli L, Meuli R, Schnyder P, Maeder P: Relationship between brain perfusion computed tomography variables and cerebral perfusion pressure in severe head trauma patients. Crit Care Med 32: 1579-1587, 2004.
119. Yokota H, Yamamoto Y, Naoe Y, Fuse A, Sato H, Unemoto K, Kurokawa A: Measurements of cortical cellular pH by intracranial tonometer in severe head injury. Crit Care Med 28: 3275-3280, 2000.
120. Young B, Rapp RP, Norton JA, Haack D, Tibbs PA, Bean JR: Failure of prophylactically administered phenytoin to prevent late posttraumatic seizures. J Neurosurg 58: 236-241, 1983.
121. Zhi D, Zhang S, Lin X: Study on therapeutic mechanism and clinical effect of mild hypothermia in patients with severe head injury. Surg Neurol 59: 381-385, 2003.
122. Aarabi B, Alden TD, Chesnut RM, Downs JH III, Ecklund JM, Eisenbereg HM, Farace E, Florin RE, Jane JA Jr, Krieger MD, Maas AIR, Nasrayan RK, Potapov AA, Salazar AM, Shaffrey ME, Walters BC: Management and prognosis of penetrating brain injury. J Trauma 51: S3-S86, 2001.
123. Albanese J, Leone M, Alliez JR, Kaya JM, Antonini F, Alliez B, Martin C: Decompressive craniectomy for severe traumatic brain injury: evaluation of the effects at one year. Crit Care Med 31: 2535-2538, 2003.
124. Anand VK, Murali RK, Glasgold MJ: Surgical decision in the management of cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea. Rhinology 33: 212-218, 1995.
125. Andrews BT, Chiles BW 3rd, Olsen WL, Pitts LH: The effects of intracerebral hematoma location on the risk of brainstem compression and on clinical outcome. J Neurosurg 69: 518-522, 1988.
126. Barkwer FG 2nd: Efficacy of prophylactic antibiotics for craniotomy: a meta-analysis. Neurosurgery 35: 484-492, 1994.
127. Biffl WL, Moore EE, Elliott JP, Brega KE, Burch JM: Blunt cerebrovascular injuries. Curr Probl Surg 36: 505-599, 1999.
128. Bok AP, Peter JC: Carotid and vertebral artery occlusion after blunt cervical injury: the role of MR angiography in early diagnosis. J Trauma 40: 986-972, 1986.
129. Brodie HA: Prophylactic antibiotics for posttraumatic cerebrospinal fluid fistulae. A meta-analysis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 123: 749-752, 1997.
130. Bula WI, Loes DJ: Trauma to the cerebrovascular system. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 4: 753-772, 1994.
131. Bullock R, Golek J, Blake G: Traumatic intracerebral hematoma—which patients should undergo surgical evacuation? CT scan features and ICP monitoring as a basis for decision making. Surg Neurol 32: 181-187, 1989.
132. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Guidelines for prevention of surgical site infection. Bull Am Coll Surg 85: 23-29, 2000.
133. Friedman JA, Ebersold MJ, Quast LM: Post-traumatic cerebrospinal fluid leakage. World J Surg 25: 1062-1066, 2001.
134. Gallbraith S, Teasdale G: Predicting the need for operation in the patient with an occult traumatic intracranial hematoma. J Neurosurg 55: 75-81, 1981.
135. Guerra WK, Gaab MR, Dietz H, Muelkler JU, Piek J, Fritsch MJ: Surgical decompression for traumatic brain swelling: indications and results. J Neurosurg 90: 187-196, 1999.
136. Guyot LL, Kazmierczak CD, Diaz FG: Vascular injury in neurotrauma. Neurol Res 23: 291-296, 2001.
137. Ishikawa E, Meguro K, Yanaka K, Murakami T, Narushima K, Aoki T, Nose T: Intracerebellar penetrating injury and abscess due to a wooden foreign body—case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 40: 458-462, 2000.
138. Ito M, Sonokawa T, Mishina H, Sato K: Penetrating injury of the brain by the burr of a high-speed air drill during craniotomy: case report. J Clin Neurosci 8: 261-263, 2001.
139. Jamieson KG, Yelland JD: Surgically treated traumatic subdural hematomas. J Neurosurg 37: 137-149, 1972.
140. Kitakami A, Kirikae M, Kuroda K, Ogawa A: Transorbital-transpetrosal penetrating cerebellar injury—case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 39: 150-152, 1999.
141. Lobato RD, Rivas JJ, Gomez PA, Castañeda M, Cañizal JM, Sarabia R, Cabrera A, Muñoz MJ: Head-injured patients who talk and deteriorate into coma. Analysis of 212 cases studied with computerized tomography. J Neurosurg 75: 256-261, 1991.
142. McGurt WF Jr, Stool SE: Cerebrospinal fistula: the identification and management in pediatric temporal bone fractures. Laryngoscope 105: 359-364, 1995.
143. Meier U, Gräwe A: The importance of decompressive craniectomy for the management of severe head injuries. Acta Neurochir Suppl 86: 367-371, 2003.
144. Mendizabal GR, Moreno BC, Flores CC: Cerebrospinal fluid fistula: frequency in head injuries. Rev Laryngol Otol Rhinol (Bord) 113: 423-425, 1992.
145. Mine S, Yamakami I, Yamaura A, Hanawa K, Ikejiri M, Mizota A, Adachi-Usami E: Outcome of traumatic optic neuropathy: comparison between surgical and nonsurgical treatment. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 141: 27-30, 1999.
146. Münch E, Horn P, Schürer L, Piepgras A, Paul T, Schmiedek P: Management of severe traumatic brain injury by decompressive craniectomy. Neurosurgery 47: 315-323, 2000.
147. New PF, Aronow S: Attenuation measurements of whole blood and blood fractions in computed tomography. Radiology 121: 635-640, 1976.
148. Ng M, Maceri DR, Levy MM, Crockett DM: Extracranial repair of pediatric traumatic cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 124: 1125-1130, 1998.
149. Otsuka S, Nakatsu S, Matsumoto S, Sato S, Motozaki T, Ban S, Yamamoto T: Study on cases with posterior fossa epidural hematoma. Clinical feature and indication for operation. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 30: 24-28, 1990.
150. Polin RS, Shaffrey ME, Bogaev CA, Tisdale N, Germanson T, Bocchicchio B, Jane JA: Decompressive bifrontal craniectomy in the treatment of severe refractory posttraumatic cerebral edema. Neurosurgery 41: 84-94, 1997.
151. Schneider GH, Bardt T, Lanksch WR, Unterberg A: Decompressive craniectomy following traumatic brain injury: ICP, CPP and neurological outcome. Acta Neurochir Suppl 81: 77-79, 2002.
152. Seelig JM, Greenberg RP, Becker DP, Miller JD, Choi SC: Reversible brainstem dysfunction following acute traumatic subdural hematoma: a clinical and electrophysiological study. J Neurosurg 55: 516-523, 1981.
153. Sethi DS, Chan C, Pillay PK: Endoscopic management of cerebrospinal fluid fistulae and traumatic cephalocele. Ann Acad Med Singapore 25: 724-727, 1996.
154. Spoor TC, Hartel WC, Lensink DB, Wilkinson MJ: Treatment of traumatic optic neuropathy with corticosteroids. Am J Ophthalmol 110: 665-669, 1990.
155. Takanashi Y, Shinonaga M, Manaka H: Penetrating brain injury with nasal entry by a plastic stick. Case report. J Neurosurg Sci 46: 25-27, 2002.
156. Villalobos T, Arango C, Kubilis P, Rathore M: Antibiotic prophylaxis after basilar skull fractures: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 27: 364-369, 1998.
157. Whitefield PC, Patel H, Hutchinson PJ, Czosnyka M, Parry D, Menon D, Pickard JD, Kirkpatrick PJ: Bifrontal decompressive craniectomy in the management of posttraumatic intracranial hypertension. Br J Neurosurg 15: 500-507, 2001.
158. Zafonte RD, Wood DL, Harrison-Felix CL, Valena NV, Black K: Penetrating head injury: a prospective study of outcomes. Neurol Res 23: 219-226, 2001.
159. Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT: Computed tomographic staging of traumatic epidural bleeding. Radiology 144: 809-812, 1982.
160. Alexander J: Oral and maxillofacial trauma: triage to definitive care, in Becker DP, Gudeman SK (eds): Text Book of Head Injury. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1989, pp 350-366.
161. Burnstine MA: Clinical recommendations for repair od isolated orbital floor fractures: an evidence-based analysis. Ophthalmology 109: 1207-1211, 2002.
162. Sires BS, Stanley RB Jr, Levine LM: Oculocardiac reflex caused by orbital floor trapdoor fracture: an indication for urgent repair. Arch Ophthalmol 116: 955-956, 1998.
163. Vriens JP, Moos KF: Morbidity of the infraorbital nerve following orbitozygomatic complex fractures. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 23: 363-368, 1995.
164. Zachariades N, Papavassiliou D, Papademetriou I: The alterations in sensitivity of the infraorbital nerve following fractures of zygomaticomaxillary complex. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 18: 315-318, 1990.
165. Albanese J: Ketamine decreases intracranial pressure and electroencephalographic activity in traumatic brain injury patients during propofol sedation. Anesthesiology 87: 1328-1334, 1997.
166. Baldwin HZ, Rekate HL: Preliminary experience with controlled external lumbar drainage in diffuse pediatric head injury. Pediatr Neurosurg 17: 115-120, 1991.
167. Carney NA, Chesnut R, Kochanek PM:World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies: Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children and adolescents. Pediatr Crit Care Med 4 (3 Suppl): S1, 2003.
168. Chambers IR, Treadwell L, Mendelow AD: Deteremination of threshold levels of cerebral perfusion pressure and intracranial pressure in severe head injury by using receiver-operating characterristic curves: an observational study in 291 patients. J Neurosurg 94: 412-416, 2001.
169. Cho DY, Wang YC, Chi CS: Decompressive craniectomy for acute shaken/impact baby syndrome. Pediatr Neurosurg 23: 192-198, 1995.
170. Cooper PR, Moody S, Clark WK, Kirkpatrick J, Maravilla K, Gould AL, Drane W: Dexamethasone and severe head injury. J Neurosurg 51: 307-316, 1979.
171. Downard C, Hulka F, Mullins RJ, Piatt J, Chesnut R, Quint P, Mann NC: Relationship of cerebral perfusion pressure and survival in pediatric brain-injured patients. J Trauma 49: 654-659, 2000.
172. Fanconi S, Klöti J, Meuli M, Zaugg H, Zachmann M: Dexamethasone therapy and endogeneous coritsol production in severe pediatric head injury. Intensive Care Med 14: 163-166, 1988.
173. Figaji AA, Fieggen AG, Peter JC: Early decompressive craniectomy in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst 19: 666-673, 2003.
174. Gruszkiewicz J, Doron Y, Peyser E: Recovery from severe craniocerebral injury with brain stem lesions in childhood. Surg Neurol 1: 197-201, 1973.
175. James HE: Methodology for the control of intracranial pressure with hypertonic mannitol. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 51: 161-172, 1980.
176. Kasoff SS, Lansen TA, Holder D, Filippo JS: Aggressive physilogic monitoring of pediatric trauma patients with elevated intracranial pressure. Pediatr Neurosci 14: 241-249, 1988.
177. Khanna S, Davis D, Peterson B, Fisher B, Tung H, O'Quigley J, Deutsch R: Use of hypertonic saline in the treatment of severe refractory posttraumatic intracranial hypertension in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med 28: 1144-1151, 2000.
178. Levy DI, Rekate HL, Cherny WB, Manwaring K, Moss SD, Baldwin HZ: Controlled lumbar drainage in pediatric head injury. J Neurosurg 83: 453-460, 1995.
179. Lewis RJ, Yee L, Inkelis SH, Gilmore D: Clinical predictors of posttraumatic seizures in children with head trauma. Ann Emerg Med 22: 1114-1118, 1993.
180. Miller JD, Piper IR, Dearden NM: Management of intracranial hypertension in head injury: matching treatment with cause. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien) 57: 152-159, 1993.
181. Moore R, Najarian MP, Konvolinka CW: Measured energy expenditure in severe head trauma. J Trauma 29: 1633-1636, 1989.
182. Nirula R, Gentilello LM: Futility of resuscitation criteria for the “young” and the “old” old trauma patient: a national trauma data bank analysis. J Trauma 57: 37-41, 2004.
183. Nordby HK, Nesbakken R: The effect of high dose barbiturate decompression after severe head injury. A controlled clinical trial. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 72: 157-166, 1984.
184. Peterson B, Khanna S, Fisher B, Marshall L: Prolonged hypernatremia controls elevated intracranial pressure in brain-injured pediatric patients. Crit Care Med 28: 1136-1143, 2000.
185. Pittman T, Bucholz R, Williams D: Efficacy of barbiturates in the treatment of resistant intracranial hyprertension in severely head injured children. Pediatr Neurosci 15: 13-17, 1988.
186. Polin RS, Shaffrey ME, Bogaev CA, Tisdale N, Germanson T, Bocchicchio B, Jane JA: Dcompressive bifrontal craniectomy in the treatment of severe refractory posttraumatic cerebral edema. Neurosurgery 41: 84-94, 1997.
187. Prabhakaran P, Reddy AT, Oakes WJ, King WD, Winkler MK, Givens TG: A pilot trial comparing cerebral perfusion pressure. Targeted therapy to intracranial pressure-targeted therapy in children with severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 100 (5 Suppl Pediatrics): 454-459, 2004.
188. Shapiro K, Marmarou A: Clinical applications of the pressure-volume index in treatment of pediatric head injuries. J Neurosurg 56: 819-825, 1982.
189. Shore PM, Thomas NJ, Clark RS, Adelson PD, Wisniewski SR, Janesko KL, Bayir H, Jackson EK, Kochanek PM: Continuous versus intermittent cerebrospinal fluid drainage after severe traumatic brain injury in children: effect on biochemical markers. J Neurotrauma 21: 1113-1122, 2004.
190. Sires BS, Stanley RB Jr, Levine LM: Oculocardiac reflex caused by orbital floor trapdoor fracture: an indication for urgent repair. Arch Ophthalmol 116: 955-956, 1998.
191. Skippen P, Seear M, Poskitt K, Kestle J, Cochrane D, Annich G, Handel J:Effect of hyperventilation on regional cerebral blood flow in head-injured children. Crit Care Med 25: 1402-1409, 1997.
192. Stringer WA, Hasso AN, Thompson JR, Hinshaw DB, Jordan KG: Hyperventilation-induced cerebral ischemia in patients with acute brain lesions: demonstration by xenon-enhanced CT. AINR Am J Neuroradiol 14: 475-484, 1993.
193. Taylor A, Butt W, Rosenfeld J, Shann F, Ditchfield M, Lewis E, Klug G, Wallace D, Henning R, Tibballs J: A randomized trial of very early decompressive craniectomy in children with traumatic brain injury and sustained intracranial hypertension. Childs Nerv Cyst 17: 154-162, 2001.
194. Tilford JM, Simpson PM, Yeh TS, Lensing S, Aitken ME, Green JW, Harr J, Fiser DH: Variation in therapy and outcome for pediatric head trauma patients. Crit Care Med 29: 1056-1061, 2001.
195. Vernon DD, Witte MK: Effect of neuromuscular blockade on oxygen consumption and energy expenditure in sedation, mechanically ventilated children. Crit Care Med 28: 1569-1571, 2000.
196. Zweinenberg M: Severe pediatric head injury: the role of hyperemia revisited. J Neurotrauma 16: 937-943, 1999.
197. Ibañez J, Arikan F, Pedraza S, Sánchez E, Poca MA, Rodriguez D, Rubio E: Reliability of clinical guidelines in detection of patients at risk following mild head injury: results of a prospective study. J Neurosurg 100: 825-834, 2004.
198. Korinthenberg R, Schreck J, Weser J, Lehmkuhl G: Post-traumatic syndrome after mild head injury cannot be predicted by neurological investigations. Brain Dev 26: 113-117, 2004.
199. Servadei F, Teasdale G, Merry G; Neurotraumatology Committee of the World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies: Defining acute mild head injury in adults: a proposal based on prognostic factors, diagnosis, and management. J Neurotrauma 18: 657-664, 2001.
200. Stiell IG, Wells GA, Vandemheen K, Clement C, Lesiuk H, Laupacis A, McKnight RD, Verbeek R, Brison R, Cass D, Eisenhauer ME, Greenberg G, Worthington J: The Canadian CT Head Rule for patients with minor head injury. Lancet 357: 1391-1396, 2001.