Delegation in immigration law

University of Chicago Law Review

Volumn 79, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 1285-1349

  Cox, Adam B ^a   Posner, Eric A ^b  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84872723446     PISSN: 00419494     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (222)

1. See, for example, Chae Chan Ping v United States, 130 US 581, 609 (1889)
2. See also Stephen H. Legomsky, Immigration Law and the Principle of Plenary Congressional Power, 1984 S Ct Rev 255, 255
3. Gabriel J. Chin, Chae Chan Ping and Fong Yue Ting: The Origins of Plenary Power, in David A. Martin and Peter H. Schuck, eds, Immigration Stories 7, 7 (Foundation 2005).
4. See Complaint, United States v Arizona, No 10-01413, *8-9 (D Ariz filed July 6, 2010)
5. See Arizona v United States, 132 S Ct 2492 (2012).
6. See, for example, Michael J. Wishnie, Laboratories of Bigotry? Devolution of the Immigration Power, Equal Protection, and Federalism, 76 NYU L Rev 493, 532-49 (2001).
7. See Adam B. Cox and Cristina M. Rodríguez, The President and Immigration Law, 119 Yale L J 458, 460-61 (2009).
8. See, for example, James Doty, Arizona's New Immigration Law is Unconstitutional (Salon Apr 26, 2010), online at http://www.salon.com/2010/04/ 26/is-arizona-immigration-law-constitutional (visited Nov 25, 2012).
9. See also Keith Cunningham-Parmeter, Forced Federalism: States as Laboratories of Immigration Reform, 62 Hastings L J 1673, 1675-79 (2011).
10. See Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC), Other Selection Factors-Skilled Workers and Professionals (June 26, 2010), online at http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/immigrate/skilled/apply-factors.asp (visited Nov 25, 2012)
11. With CIC, Coming to Canada as a Business Immigrant (Dec 7, 2010), online at http://cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/busimm.asp (visited Nov 25, 2012).
12. See Adam B. Cox and Eric A. Posner, The Rights of Migrants: An Optimal Contract Framework, 84 NYU L Rev 1403, 1409 (2009);
13. Adam B. Cox and Eric A. Posner, The Second- Order Structure of Immigration Law, 59 Stan L Rev 809, 811-12 (2007).
14. See, for example, Jean-Jacques Laffont and David Martimort, The Theory of Incentives: The Principal-Agent Model 27-30 (Princeton 2001).
15. See Cox and Posner, 59 Stan L Rev at 824-27 (cited in note 12).
16. See Donald J. Smythe, The Scope of a Bargain and the Value of a Promise, 60 SC L Rev 203, 210 n 43 (2008).
17. See generally Gordon H. Hanson, The Governance of Migration Policy, 11 J Human Dev & Capabilities 185 (2010)
18. See also Michael S. Teitelbaum and Myron Weiner, Introduction: Threatened People, Threatened Borders: Migration and U.S. Foreign Policy, in Michael S. Teitelbaum and Myron Weiner, eds, Threatened People, Threatened Borders: World Migration and U.S. Policy 13, 17- 18 (Norton 1995).
19. See Laffont and Martimort, Theory of Incentives at 145-48 (cited in note 13).
20. See, for example, CIC, Points for Proficiency in English or French-Skilled Workers and Professionals (Nov 9, 2011), online at http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/immigrate/skilled/factor-language.asp (visited Nov 25, 2012)
21. See Cox and Posner, 59 Stan L Rev at 824-27, 835-43 (cited in note 12).
22. see Cox and Posner, 84 NYU L Rev at 828-29 (cited in note 12).
23. See Cox and Rodríguez, 119 Yale L J at 458 (cited in note 6).
24. See, for example, Eleanor Marie Lawrence Brown, A Visa to "Snitch": An Addendum to Cox and Posner, 87 Notre Dame L Rev 973, 979-82 (2012)
25. Eleanor Marie Lawrence Brown, Outsourcing Immigration Compliance, 77 Fordham L Rev 2475, 2491-94 (2009)
26. Stephen Lee, Private Immigration Screening in the Workplace, 61 Stan L Rev 1103, 1105-07 (2009)
27. Huyen Pham, The Private Enforcement of Immigration Laws, 96 Georgetown L J 777, 778-80 (2008)
28. - 8 USC § 1101(a)(15).
29. - 8 USC § 1101(a)(15).
30. - 8 USC §§ 1151(d)(1), 1153(b).
31. See David Weissbrodt and Laura Danielson, Immigration Law and Procedure in a Nutshell 154-72 (West 6th ed 2010);
32. Thomas Alexander Aleinikoff, et al, Immigration and Citizenship: Process and Policy 161-66 (West 6th ed 2008).
33. - 8 USC § 1153(b)(1).
34. - 8 USC § 1153(b)(2).
35. - 8 USC § 1153(b)(3).
36. - 8 USC § 1153(b)(4)-(5).
37. See also Weissbrodt and Danielson, Immigration Law and Procedure at 154-58 (cited in note 28).
38. - 8 USC § 1153(b)(2)(B)(ii).
39. - 8 USC § 1182(n).
40. - 8 USC § 1182(a)(5)(A)(i).
41. - 8 USC § 1182(n)(1).
42. - 8 USC § 1101(a)(13)(C).
43. See US Citizenship and Immigration Services, Annual Report on Characteristics of Specialty Occupational Workers (H-1B) for Fiscal Year 2009 ii (Department of Homeland Security Apr 15, 2010), online at http://www.uscis.gov/ USCIS/Resources/Reports%20and% 20Studies/H-1B/h1b-fy-09-characteristics.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
44. Randall Monger and Macreadie Barr, Office of Immigration Statistics, Nonimmigrant Admissions to the United States: 2009 4 (Department of Homeland Security Apr 2010), online at http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/ publications/ni-fr-2009.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
45. For a collection of these varying figures, see Global Workers Justice Alliance, Statistics for H2A, H2B, and H2R Visas for 2006-2009 *1 (June 2010), online at http://www.docstoc.com/docs/93294124/Statistics-for-H2A-H2B- and-H2R-Visas-Overview (visited Nov 25, 2012).
46. - 8 USC § 1184(i)(1).
47. See also Weissbrodt and Danielson, Immigration Law and Procedure at 200-07 (cited in note 28).
48. See 8 USC § 1188.
49. See also Weissbrodt and Danielson, Immigration Law and Procedure at 200-07 (cited in note 28).
50. See Citizenship and Immigration Services, Characteristics of H-1B Specialty Occupation Workers at 3 (cited in note 38).
51. - 8 USC § 1184(i).
52. - 8 USC § 1184(c).
53. - 8 USC § 1182(n)(1).
54. - 8 CFR § 214.2(h).
55. - 8 USC § 1184(g)(4).
56. - 8 USC § 1184(n)(1)
57. - 8 USC § 1184(n)(1).
58. - 8 USC § 1188.
59. - 20 CFR § 655.103.
60. See also Department of Labor, Work Authorization for Non-U.S. Citizens: Temporary Agricultural Workers (H-2A Visas) (Sept 2009), online at http://www.dol.gov/compliance/guide/taw.htm (visited Nov 25, 2012).
61. - 8 USC § 1188(a)(1)(A).
62. - 8 USC § 1188(a)(1)(B).
63. - 8 USC § 1188(c)(3)(B)(i).
64. Consider 8 USC §§ 1101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(a), 1184(i)(1), 1184(n) (authorizing only H-1B holders to find new employment).
65. See John Schwartz, Dot-Com is Dot-Gone, and the Dream with It, NY Times section 9 at 1 (Nov 25, 2001)
66. See Chris Murphy, Global CIO: Modest Salaries Offer Tech Bubble Reality Check, InformationWeek (May 20, 2011), online at http://www.informationweek.com/ news/global -cio/interviews/229600667 (visited Nov 25, 2012).
67. See Norman Matloff, High-Tech Cheap Labor, Wash Post A35 (Sept 12, 2000)
68. John P. De New and Klaus F. Zimmermann, Native Wage Impacts of Foreign Labor: A Random Effects Panel Analysis, 7 J Population Econ 177, 191 (1994)
69. See Norman Matloff, High-Tech Trojan Horse: H-1B Visas and the Computer Industry (Center for Immigration Studies Sept 1999), online at http://www.cis.org/ComputerIdunstry Visas-h1b (visited Nov 25, 2012)
70. For annual reports on H-1B quotas and petitions, see US Citizenship and Immigration Services, Reports and Studies, online at http://www.uscis.gov/ portal/site/uscis/menuitem.eb1d4c2a3e5b9ac89243c6a7543f6d1a/?vgnextoid= 9a1d9ddf801b3210VgnVCM100000b92ca60aRCRD&vgnextchannel= 9a1d9ddf801b3210VgnVCM100000b92ca60aRCRD (visited Nov 25, 2012).
71. See John Miano, H-1B Visa Numbers: No Relationship to Economic Need (Center for Immigration Studies June 2008), online at http://www.cis.org/ H1bVisaNumbers (visited Nov 25, 2012) (examining the consistency of the breakdown of H-1B visas allocated by industry).
72. See Glyn James, Sugarcane 165 (Blackwell 2d ed 2004).
73. See CIC, Six Selection Factors (cited in note 10);
74. Immigration New Zealand, The Skilled Migrant Category Points Indicator (Aug 12, 2011), online at http://www.immigration.govt.nz/pointsindicator (visited Nov 25, 2012);
75. Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Professionals and Other Skilled Migrants: What Is the Points Test?, online at http://www.immi.gov.au/ skilled/general-skilled-migration/points-test.htm (visited Nov 25, 2012).
76. see Demetrios G. Papademetriou and Madeleine Sumption, Rethinking Points Systems and Employer-Selected Immigration 1-8 (Migration Policy Institute June 2011), online at http://www.migrationpolicy.org/ pubs/rethinkingpointssystem.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012).
77. See also Aleinikoff, et al, Immigration and Citizenship at 460-62 (cited in note 28).
78. See Aleinikoff, et al, Immigration and Citizenship at 461-62 (cited in note 28).
79. Consider Papademetriou and Sumption, Rethinking Points Systems at 3 (cited in note 67)
80. For empirical evidence, see US Citizenship and Immigration Services, Approval and Denial Statistics for I-140, Immigrant Petitions for Alien Workers (DHS Feb 28, 2011), online at http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem. 5af9bb95919f35e66f614176543f6d1a/?vgnextoid= 2be702798785e210VgnVCM100000082ca60aRCRD&vgnextchannel=cdfd2f8b69583210Vgn VCM100000082ca60aRCRD (visited Nov 25, 2012)
81. - 8 USC §§ 1188(c)(3)(B)(i), 1182(n)(1)(A)(i)(II).
82. - 8 USC § 1188(a)(1)(B).
83. - 8 USC § 1182(n)(1)(G)(i).
84. - 8 USC § 1184(n).
85. See, for example, 8 USC § 1188(i)(1)
86. See 8 USC § 1184(n)
87. See Papademetriou and Sumption, Rethinking Points Systems at 4 (cited in note 67).
88. For some suggestive evidence, see Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America 142-43 (Princeton 2004) (arguing that the Bracero guest-worker program in the 1940s coincided with stagnation of farm wages in the South over the next few decades).
89. See 8 USC § 1101(a)(15)(B), (F), (J).
90. See 8 USC § 1101(a)(15)(O)(ii)(IV).
91. See Aleinikoff, et al, Immigration and Citizenship at 400-01
92. See 8 USC § 1101(a)(15)(O)(ii)(IV).
93. See, for example, 8 USC §§ 1182, 1227
94. See Hiroshi Motomura, Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States 80-114 (Oxford 2006), citing Graham v Richardson, 403 US 365 (1971).
95. See 8 USC § 1153(e)(2).
96. See Papademetriou and Sumption, Rethinking Points Systems at 4-5 (cited in note 67).
97. See, for example, Gary S. Becker, The Challenge of Immigration-A Radical Solution 27 (Institute of Economic Affairs 2010), online at http://www.iea.org. uk/sites/default/ files/publications/files/ IEA%20Challenge%20of%20Immigration%20web.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
98. Julian L. Simon, The Economic Consequences of Immigration 357-64 (Michigan 2d ed 1999).
99. See Ngai, Impossible Subjects at 21-55 (cited in note 85).
100. See also John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism 1860-1925 310-11 (Atheneum 1963).
101. See Marc R. Rosenblum, US Immigration Reform: Can the System Be Repaired? *4 (UC San Diego, Center for Comparative Immigration Studies Working Paper No 132, Jan 2006), online at http://ccis.ucsd.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/ 07/wrkg132.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012).
102. See Office of Immigration Statistics, 2010 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics 18 table 6 (DHS Aug 2011), online at http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/ assets/statistics/yearbook/2010/ois-yb -2010.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012).
103. See Bureau of Consular Affairs, Family-Based Immigrant Visas (Department of State 2012), online at http://travel.state.gov/visa/immigrants/types/types- 1306.html (visited Nov 25, 2012).
104. - 8 USC § 1153(a).
105. See Fiallo v Bell, 430 US 787, 797-800 (1977)
106. Compare 8 USC § 1151(b)(2)(A)(i)
107. - 8 USC §§ 1151(b)(2)(A)(i), 1153(a)(2).
108. - 8 USC § 1151(c).
109. - 8 USC § 1152(a).
110. See Bureau of Consular Affairs, Immigration Numbers for November 2012, 9 Visa Bull 50 (US Department of State Nov 2012), online at http://www.travel. state.gov/pdf/ visabulletin/visabulletin-november2012.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012).
111. See, for example, Melissa Murray, The Networked Family: Reframing the Legal Understanding of Caregiving and Caregivers, 94 Va L Rev 385, 437-54 (2008)
112. Laura A. Rosenbury, Friends with Benefits?, 106 Mich L Rev 189, 189-93 (2007)
113. See Stanford M. Lyman, Marriage and the Family among Chinese Immigrants to America, 1850-1960, 29 Phylon 321, 324 & n 13 (1968);
114. Fiallo, 430 US at 797-800
115. - 8 USC § 1151(b)(2)(A)(i)
116. See Cox and Posner, 59 Stan L Rev at 836-37 (cited in note 12).
117. Green Card (Touchstone Pictures 1990).
118. - 8 USC § 1186a(a)(1).
119. - 8 USC § 1186a (describing conditional status);
120. - 8 USC § 1227(a)(1)(G)
121. - 8 USC § 1186a(c)(1)(A).
122. - 8 USC § 1186a(d)(1).
123. See 8 USC § 1186a(c)(1)(B).
124. But see 8 USC § 1186a(d)(3)
125. See Eytan Meyers, Theories of International Immigration Policy-A Comparative Analysis, 34 Intl Migration Rev 1245, 1251-57 (2000)
126. See CIC, Six Selection Factors (cited in note 10);
127. Immigration New Zealand, Skilled Migrant Category Points Indicator (cited in note 67).
128. See Scott C. Titshaw, The Meaning of Marriage: Immigration Rules and Their Implications for Same-Sex Spouses in a World without DOMA, 16 Wm & Mary J Women & L 537, 583-86 (2010)
129. See Adams v Howerton, 673 F2d 1036, 1038-41 (9th Cir 1982)
130. See Helena Skyt Nielsen, Nina Smith, and Aycan Çelikaksoy, The Effect of Marriage on Education of Immigrants: Evidence from a Policy Reform Restricting Marriage Migration, 111 Scandinavian J Econ 457, 462 (2009).
131. Adam B. Cox, Immigration Law's Organizing Principles, 157 U Pa L Rev 341, 363 n 76 (2008).
132. - 8 USC § 1182(a)(4)(C)(ii)
133. See Charles Wheeler, The Affidavit of Support and Sponsorship Requirements: A Critical Analysis, 98 Immig Briefings 1, 6-8 (June 1998)
134. Robert A. Mautino, Comment, Sponsor Liability for Alien Immigrants: The Affidavit of Support in Light of Recent Developments, 7 San Diego L Rev 314, 314-23 (1970)
135. See Higham, Strangers in the Land at 310-11
136. See also Higham, Strangers in the Land at 310-11
137. See, for example, Aristide R. Zolberg, A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America 324-36 (Harvard 2006);
138. Gabriel J. Chin, The Civil Rights Revolution Comes to Immigration Law: A New Look at the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, 75 NC L Rev 273, 297-317 (1996)
139. See generally David Epstein and Sharyn O'Halloran, Delegating Powers: A Transaction Cost Politics Approach to Policymaking under Separate Powers (Cambridge 1999).
140. Compare US Census Bureau, Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States: 2000 11 figure 2.2 (Department of Commerce Dec 2001), online at http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/p23-206.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
141. See US Census Bureau, Profile of the Foreign-Born Population at 33 (cited in note 141) (providing native- and foreign-born intermarriage statistics);
142. Sharon M. Lee and Barry Edmonston, New Marriages, New Families: U.S. Racial and Hispanic Intermarriage, 60 Population Bull 1, 16-17 (Population Reference Bureau June 2005), online at http://www.prb.org/ pdf05/60. 2newmarriages.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012);
143. Matthijs Kalmijn, Intermarriage and Homogamy: Causes, Patterns, Trends, 24 Ann Rev Sociology 395, 410 (1998).
144. See US Census Bureau, Profile of the Foreign-Born Population at 11
145. See also Randal C. Archibold, Arizona Enacts Stringent Law on Immigration, NY Times A1 (Apr 24, 2010)
146. See generally Arizona v United States, 132 S Ct 2492 (2012).
147. Georgia Latino Alliance for Human Rights v Governor of Georgia, 691 F3d 1250, 1269 (11th Cir 2012).
148. See Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law 247-48 (North Carolina 1995);
149. Juliet P. Stumpf, States of Confusion: The Rise of State and Local Power of Immigration, 86 NC L Rev 1557, 1569-71, 1593-96 (2008).
150. Judith Adler Hellman, Migration in the Americas: Permanent, Cyclical, Temporary, and Forced, 46 Latin Am Rsrch Rev 235, 243 (Apr 2011)
151. - 8 USC §§ 1151(b)(2)(A)(i), 1153(a)(2).
152. See Matter of Darwish, 14 I&N Dec 307, 307-08 (BIA 1973).
153. See Matter of Zappia, 12 I&N Dec 439, 440-42 (BIA 1967).
154. See Eric H. Holder Jr., Attorney General, Letter to John A. Boehner, Speaker of the US House of Representatives, Defense of Marriage Act (Feb 23, 2011), online at http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2011/February/11-ag-223.html (visited Nov 25, 2012)
155. See Julia Preston, Justice Dept. to Continue Policy against Same-Sex Marriage, NY Times A15 (May 9, 2011).
156. See Julia Preston, Judge Gives Immigrant in Same-Sex Marriage a Reprieve from Deportation, NY Times A12 (May 7, 2011).
157. Aziz Z. Huq, Enforcing (But Not Defending) "Unconstitutional" Laws, 98 Va L Rev 1001, 1021-28 (2012).
158. - 8 USC § 1227(a)(2)
159. See Pooja R. Dadhania, Note, The Categorical Approach for Crimes Involving Moral Turpitude after Silva-Trevino, 111 Colum L Rev 313, 314 (2011).
160. - 8 USC § 1182(a)(5)(A)(i)
161. Aleinikoff, et al, Immigration and Citizenship at 362-67 (cited in note 28).
162. See Robert A. Mikos, Enforcing State Law in Congress's Shadow, 90 Cornell L Rev 1411, 1415, 1422-33 (2005).
163. Office of Immigration Statistics, Immigration Enforcement Actions: 2010 1, 4 (DHS June 2011), online at http://www.dhs.gov/ xlibrary/assets/statistics/ publications/enforcement-ar-2010.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012).
164. See John Morton, Director of ICE, Memorandum for All Field Office Directors, All Special Agents in Charge, and All Chief Counsel, Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion Consistent with the Civil Immigration Enforcement Priorities of the Agency for the Apprehension, Detention, and Removal of Aliens (July 17, 2011), online at http://www.ice.gov/doclib/securecommunities/pdf/ prosecutorial-discretion-memo.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
165. Oversight of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Hearing before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 111th Cong, 1st Sess 199, 207 (Dec 9, 2009) (testimony of Janet Napolitano, Secretary, DHS).
166. See generally William J. Stuntz, The Collapse of American Criminal Justice (Harvard 2010).
167. See, for example, Jeff Rosen, District Attorney of Santa Clara County, Memorandum to Fellow Prosecutors, Collateral Consequences (Sept 14, 2011), online at http://www.ilrc.org/files/documents/unit-7b-4-santa-clara-da-policy. pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
168. See Salyer, Law Harsh as Tigers at 247-48 (cited in note 148).
169. See, for example, Lance Pugmire, Immigration Check at Inland Jail Is Okd, LA Times B3 (Sept 21, 2005)
170. See ICE, Secure Communities (DHS 2012), online at http://www.ice.gov/ secure-communities (visited Nov 25, 2012).
171. See Lisa M. Seghetti, Karma Ester, and Michael John Garcia, Enforcing Immigration Law: The Role of State and Local Law Enforcement 2 (Congressional Research Service Mar 11, 2009), online at http://www.au.af.mil/au/ awc/awcgate/crs/rl32270.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012).
172. ICE, Criminal Alien Program (DHS 2012), online at http://www.ice.gov/ criminal-alien-program (visited Nov 25, 2012). Because the program is much more labor intensive than SCOMM, it has had considerably more limited scope than does SCOMM.
173. See ICE, Secure Communities (cited in note 169).
174. See ICE, Immigration Detainer-Notice of Action (DHS Dec 2011), online at http://www.ice.gov/doclib/secure-communities/pdf/immigration-detainer-form.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
175. See ICE, Activated Jurisdictions (DHS Aug 22, 2012), online at http://www.ice.gov/ doclib/secure-communities/pdf/sc-activated.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
176. See ICE, Planned Nationwide Usage of the Biometric Information Sharing Capability by Fiscal Year (2009-2013) *1 (DHS), online at http://www.ice.gov/doclib/securecommunities/pdf/sc-dep.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
177. See Peter H. Schuck, Three States Short of a Secure Community, NY Times A27 (June 23, 2011) (discussing the attempted withdraw of New York, Massachusetts, and Illinois from SCOMM).
178. See Adam B. Cox and Thomas J. Miles, Policing Immigration, 80 U Chi L Rev (forthcoming 2013).
179. See generally Joseph Goldstein, Police Discretion Not to Invoke the Criminal Process: Low-Visibility Decisions in the Administration of Justice, 69 Yale L J 543 (1960).
180. See also Debra Livingston, Police Discretion and the Quality of Life in Public Places: Courts, Communities, and the New Policing, 97 Colum L Rev 551 (1997).
181. See Visa Waiver Program Oversight: Risks and Benefits of the Program, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Immigration Policy and Enforcement of the House Judiciary Committee, 112th Cong, 1st Sess 72, 72-75 (Dec 7, 2011)
182. Compare ICE, Removal Statistics (DHS), online at http://www.ice.gov/ removalstatistics (visited Nov 25, 2012)
183. With ICE, Secure Communities: IDENT/IAFIS Interoperability Statistics 2 (DHS Oct 14, 2011), online at http://www.ice.gov/doclib/foia/scstats/nationwide- interoperability-stats-fy2011-to-date.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012).
184. See ICE, Activated Jurisdictions (cited in note 174)
185. See, for example, Aarti Kohli, Does the Crime Fit the Punishment?: Recent Judicial Actions Expanding the Rights of Noncitizens, 2 Cal L Rev Cir 1, 14-15 (2011)
186. Yolanda Vazquez, Advising Noncitizen Defendants on the Immigration Consequences of Criminal Convictions: The Ethical Answer for the Criminal Defense Lawyer, the Court, and the Sixth Amendment, 20 La Raza L J 31, 39-40 (2010)
187. See, for example, Cristina M. Rodríguez, The Significance of the Local in Immigration Regulation, 106 Mich L Rev 567, 580-90 (2008);
188. Peter H. Schuck, Taking Immigration Federalism Seriously, 2007 U Chi Legal F 57, 59;
189. Peter J. Spiro, Learning to Live with Immigration Federalism, 29 Conn L Rev 1627, 1635-36 (1997).
190. See, for example, Edward L. Rubin and Malcolm Feeley, Federalism: Some Notes on a National Neurosis, 41 UCLA L Rev 903, 924 (1994)
191. Heather K. Gerken, Forward: Federalism All the Way Down, 124 Harv L Rev 4, 21-44 (2010).
192. See Rubin and Feeley, 41 UCLA L Rev at 910-27 (cited in note 187).
193. - 457 US 202 (1982).
194. See Kevin Tessier, Immigration and the Crisis in Federalism: A Comparison of the United States and Canada, 3 Ind J Global Legal Stud 211, 222-23 (1995).
195. See, for example, Malcolm M. Feeley and Edward Rubin, Federalism: Political Identity and Tragic Compromise 84-85 (Michigan 2008).
196. See, for example, Saenz v Roe, 526 US 489, 500-07 (1999)
197. See Delia Davin, Internal Migration in Contemporary China 39-48 (St Martin's 1998).
198. See, for example, Frank H. Easterbrook and Daniel R. Fischel, The Economic Structure of Corporate Law 266 (Harvard 1996).
199. See Ngai, Impossible Subjects at 127-67 (cited in note 85) (discussing the Bracero program's rules);
200. - 8 USC § 1188.
201. See Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution: 1863-1877 258 (Harper 1988).
202. CIC, Canada-Québec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of Aliens (Feb 5, 1991), online at http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/ department/lawspolicy/agreements/quebec/can-que.asp (visited Nov 25, 2012)
203. Regulation Respecting the Selection of Foreign Nationals, RRQ ch I-0.2, r 4 (July 6, 2012), online at http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/ dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=3&file=/I-0-2/I0-2R4-A.HTM (visited Nov 25, 2012) (Québec immigration regulation setting out rules for admission).
204. See Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, c. 6(2), online at http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/CH37-4-3-2002E.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012)
205. - 8 USC § 1357(g).
206. See Nick Miroff, Pr. William Passes Softened Rules on Illegal Immigration, Wash Post A1 (July 11, 2007).
207. See Randal C. Archibold, Arizona County Uses New Law to Look for Illegal Immigrants, NY Times A19 (May 10, 2006).
208. See, for example, ICE, Memorandum of Agreement (DHS Oct 2009), online at http://www.ice.gov/doclib/foia/memorandumsofAgreementUnderstanding/ r-287gmaricopacou ntyso102609.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012) (providing the § 287(g) Memorandum of Agreement signed by Maricopa County).
209. See also Office of Public Affairs, Justice Department Settles Lawsuit with Maricopa County Sheriff's Office (DOJ June 2, 2011), online at http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2011/June/11-crt-722.html (visited Nov 25, 2012).
210. See Seghetti, Ester, and Garcia, Enforcing Immigration Law at 26
211. See 8 USC § 1357(g).
212. See Julia Preston, States Resisting Program Central to Obama's Immigration Strategy, NY Times A18 (May 6, 2011).
213. See ICE, Secure Communities: The Basics (DHS Aug 31, 2012), online at http://www.ice.gov/secure-communities#top (visited Nov 25, 2012).
214. See ICE, Activated Jurisdictions
215. ICE, Fact Sheet: Delegation of Immigration Authority
216. See Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers at 247-48
217. See ICE, Secure Communities: The Secure Communities Process (DHS Aug 31, 2012), online at http://www.ice.gov/secure-communities/# (visited Nov 25, 2012).
218. See Policy for Responding to ICE Detainers, Cook County Ordinance § 46-37 (Sept 7, 2011), online at http://library.municode.com/HTML/13805/level4/ PTIGEOR-CH46LAEN -ARTIISH-DIV1GE.html#PTIGEOR-CH46LAEN-ARTIISH-DIV1GE-S46- 37POREI CDE (visited Nov 25, 2012);
219. Civil Immigration Detainer Requests, Santa Clara County Board of Supervisors Policy Manual § 3.54 (Oct 18, 2011), online at http://www.sccgov.org/ sites/bos/Legislation/BOS-Policy-Manual/Documents/ BOSPolicyCHAP3.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012).
220. See Dhammika Dharmapala, Nuno Garoupa, and Richard H. McAdams, Punitive Police? Agency Costs, Law Enforcement, and Criminal Procedure *28-29 (unpublished working paper, Feb 15, 2011), online at http://economics.stanford. edu/files/McAdams2-24.pdf (visited Nov 25, 2012).
221. - 8 USC § 1231(a)(4)(A)
222. Peter H. Schuck, Immigrant Criminals in Overcrowded Prisons: Rethinking an Anachronistic Policy *53-56 (Yale Law School Public Law Working Paper No 266, Mar 14, 2012), online at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm? abstract-id=1805931 (visited Nov 25, 2012).