New marriages, new families: U.S. racial and hispanic intermarriage

Population Bulletin

Volumn 60, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 3-36

  Lee, Sharon M ^a   Edmonston, Barry ^a  

^a PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MARRIAGE; RACIAL IDENTITY;

NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES; WESTERN HEMISPHERE; WORLD;

EID: 23044495626     PISSN: 0032468X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Angie Chuang, "Politics, Culture Cloud Race Data," The Oregonian, March 20, 2001.
2. Other stories were Gaiutra Bahadur, "Unions Breaking Tradition," Philadelphia Inquirer, Jan. 19, 2004;
3. Gregory Rodriguez, "Mongrel America," The Atlantic Monthly 291, no. 1 (January 2003): 95-97;
4. and Breea Willingham, "Interracial Relationships Make Gains," Albany Times Union, June 3, 2004.
5. Gallup Poll results released in 2004, see www.gallup.com/poll;
6. and Jack Ludwig, "Acceptance of Interracial Marriage at Record High," accessed online at www.nexis.com, on March 6, 2005.
7. General Social Survey conducted by the National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, 2002.
8. Survey by Princeton Survey Research Associates, sponsored by The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, 2003. See Public Agenda Issue Guides, "Race: Bills and Proposals: Most Americans Do Not Object to Interracial Dating or Marriage," accessed online at www.publicagenda.org/issues/issuehome.cfm, on March 6, 2005.
9. See Matthijs Kalmijn, "Intermarriage and Homogamy: Causes, Patterns, and Trends," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 395-421;
10. and Louie A. Woolbright and J. Selwyn Hollingsworth, "Cross-Racial Births in the United States, 1968-1988," in Demographic and Structural Change: The Effects of the 1980s on American Society, ed. Dennis L. Peck and J. Selwyn Hollingsworth (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996): 187-204.
11. Elizabeth M. Grieco and Rachel C. Cassidy, "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2000," Census 2000 Brief (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2001).
12. See Joshua R. Goldstein and Ann J. Morning, "The Multiple Race Population of the United States: Issues and Estimates," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97, no. 11 (2000): 6230-35;
13. and Joel Perlmann and Mary C. Waters, "Introduction," in The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals, ed. Joel Perlmann and Mary C. Waters (New York: Russell Sage Foundation; and Annandale-on-Hudson, NY: The Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2002): 1-30.
14. Nicholas A. Jones and Amy S. Smith, "The Two or More Races Population: 2000," Census 2000 Brief (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2001).
15. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage";
16. and Richard Alba and Victor Nee, Remaking the American Mainstream: Assimilation and Contemporary Immigration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).
17. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 2d ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994).
18. Sharon M. Lee "Racial Classifications in the U.S. Census: 1890 to 1990," Ethnic and Racial Studies 16, no. 1 (1993): 75-94;
19. and American Sociological Association, "The Importance of Collecting Data and Doing Social Scientific Research on Race" (Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 2003).
20. Barry Edmonston, Sharon M. Lee, and Jeffrey S. Passel, "Recent Trends in Intermarriage and Immigration and Their Effects on the Future Racial Composition of the U.S. Population," in The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals, ed. Joel Perlmann and Mary C. Waters (New York: Russell Sage Foundation; and Annandale-on-Hudson, NY: The Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2002): 227-55;
21. and Mary C. Waters, "Immigration, Intermarriage and the Challenges of Measuring Racial/Ethnic Identities," American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 11 (2000): 1735-37.
22. We did not combine race and Hispanic status to create categories of non-Hispanic whites, blacks, and other groups to compare with Hispanics for conceptual and measurement reasons. Combining race and Hispanic status in a study of intermarriage is fraught with problems given the different roles of race and Hispanic status in U.S. society as well as the histories and characteristics of Hispanics and racial groups. Current federal guidelines on collecting racial and Hispanic origin data also consider race and Hispanic origin as two distinct concepts, and that Hispanics can be any race (see Box 3, page 8).
23. See "Loving v. Commonwealth of Virginia, 1967," in Interracialism: Black-White Intermarriage in American History, Literature, and Law, ed. Werner Sollors (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000): 26-34.
24. The American Indian population is an exception because it declined precipitously from initial contact with Europeans to about 1900 before recovering. See Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung, Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic Origin, 1790 to 1990, for the United States, Regions, Divisions, and States (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2002).
25. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1970 to 2003, selected years.
26. These traditional U.S. Census Bureau population projections do not consider interracial or inter-Hispanic births on population trends. However, new and current U.S. Census Bureau population projections are based on the race and Hispanic origin of mothers, cross-classified by race and Hispanic origin of fathers (Frederick W. Hollman, U.S. Census Bureau, personal correspondence, Feb. 15, 2005).
27. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2002, 122d ed. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2002): table 16.
28. Robert N. Anderson and Rogelio Saenz, "Structural Determinants of Mexican American Intermarriage, 1975-1980," Social Science Quarterly 75, no. 2 (1994): 414-30;
29. Kalmijn, "Intermarriage";
30. Kalmijn, "Trends in Black/White Intermarriage," Social Forces 72, no. 1 (1993): 119-46;
31. Sharon M. Lee and Marilyn Fernandez, "Trends in Asian American Racial/ Ethnic Intermarriage: A Comparison of 1980 and 1990 Census Data," Sociological Perspectives 41, no. 2 (1998): 323-42;
32. Gary Sandefur and Trudy McKinnell, "American Indian Intermarriage," Social Science Research 15, no. 4 (1986): 347-71;
33. Paul Spickard, Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth Century America (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989);
34. and Jerry A. Jacobs and Teresa G. Labov, "Gender Differentials in Intermarriage Among Sixteen Race and Ethnic Groups," Sociological Forum 17, no. 4 (2002): 621-46.
35. See reference 13 above.
36. We considered SOR/SOR and MR/MR couples endogamous based on detailed examinations of these categories in 2000 (see Box 4, page. 19). Also, in 2000, less than 4 percent of couples included an SOR individual, and the vast majority of these SOR couples (82 percent) were endogamous. Less than 2 percent of couples included an MR individual; more than one-half of these were intermarried. Less than 1 percent of all couples were MR/ MR couples. Even if all MR/MR couples were considered intermarried, the small numbers would not affect overall results.
37. Several researchers have provided technical procedures to account for group size when measuring intermarriage rates. See Paul H. Besanceney, "On Reporting Rates of Intermarriage," American Journal of Sociology 70, no. 6 (1965): 717-21;
38. and Robert Schoen, "A Methodological Analysis of Intergroup Marriage," Sociological Methodology 16 (1986): 49-78.
39. Robert K. Merton, "Intermarriage and the Social Structure: Fact and Theory," Psychiatry 4 (1941): 361-74.
40. Kalmijn, "Trends";
41. and Tim B. Heaton and Stan L. Albrecht, "The Changing Pattern of Interracial Marriage," Social Biology 43, no. 3-4 (1996): 203-17.
42. Tim B. Heaton and Cardell K. Jacobson, "Intergroup Marriage: An Examination of Opportunity Structures," Sociological Inquiry 70, no. 1 (2000): 30-41;
43. Jacobs and Labov, "Gender Differentials";
44. and Kalmijn, "Trends."
45. "All Other" interracial couple types in Figure 2, page 13, include remaining combinations such as black/American Indian, Asian /Hawaiian, American Indian/SOR, and black/MR.
46. Jones and Smith, "The Two or More Races Population: 2000."
47. Heaton and Albrecht, "The Changing Pattern";
48. Lee and Fernandez, "Trends";
49. and Sandefur and McKinnell, "American Indian Intermarriage."
50. Gallup Poll results released in 2004, see www.gallup.com/poll
51. General Social Survey conducted by the National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, 2002.
52. Survey by Princeton Survey Research Associates, sponsored by The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, 2003.
53. See Public Agenda Issue Guides, "Race: Bills and Proposals: Most Americans Do Not Object to Interracial Dating or Marriage," accessed online at www.publicagenda.org/issues/issuehome.cfm, on March 6, 2005.
54. General Social Survey, "GSS Cumulative Datafile 1972-2002 - Quick Tables"
55. and Princeton Survey Research Associates.
56. Heaton and Albrecht, "The Changing Pattern";
57. Zhenchao Qian, Sampson Lee Blair, and Stacey D. Ruf, "Asian American Interracial and Interethnic Marriages: Differences by Education and Nativity," International Migration Review 35, no. 2 (2001): 557-86;
58. and Sandefur and McKinnell, "American Indian Intermarriage."
59. Information on the racial and Hispanic percent of states' populations can be found at http://factfinder.census.gov.
60. See Karl Eschbach, "The Enduring and Vanishing American Indian: American Indian Population Growth and Intermarriage in 1990," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18, no. 1 (1995): 89-108;
61. and Kalmijn, "Trends."
62. Lee and Fernandez, "Trends";
63. and Greta Gilbertson, Joseph Fitzpatrick, and Lijun Yang, "Hispanic Intermarriage in New York City: New Evidence From 1991," International Migration Review 30, no. 2 (1996): 445-59.
64. Authors' analysis based on the Census 2000 Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS).
65. Guillermina Jasso and Mark R. Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People: Immigrants in the United States (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1990): chap. 4.
66. See Peter M. Blau, Carolyn Beeker, and Kevin Fitzpatrick, "Intersecting Social Affiliations and Intermarriage," Social Forces 62, no. 3 (1984): 585-605;
67. and Steven Rytina et al., "Inequality and Intermarriage: A Paradox of Motive and Constraint," Social Forces 66, no. 3 (1988): 645-75.
68. For further details, refer to www.factfinder.census.gov.
69. Kalmijn, "Trends."
70. See Kenneth S.Y. Chew, David Eggebeen, and Peter Uhlenberg, "American Children in Multiracial Households," Sociological Perspectives 32, no. 1 (1989): 65-86.
71. About 302,000 children were reported as living in group quarters. See Terry Lugaila and Julia Overturf "Children and the Households They Live In: 2000," Census 2000 Special Reports (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2004).
72. Authors' analysis of census files.
73. See also the large variations by parents' race reported by Sonya M. Tafoya, Hans Johnson, and Laura E. Hill, "Who Chooses, to Choose Two?" The American People (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004).
74. See Anthony P. Carnevale and Stephen J. Rose, Socioeconomic Status, Race/Ethnicity, and Selective College Admissions, A Century Foundation Paper (New York: The Century Foundation, 2003);
75. and Gene Nichol, "Educating for Privilege," The Nation 277, no. 11 (2003): 22-23.
76. U.S. Census Bureau, "Earnings by Occupation and Education," accessed online at www.census.gov, on Aug. 9, 2004.
77. Carnevale and Rose, "Socioeconomic Status."
78. For more information about the diversity within the Hispanic population, see Rogelio Saenz, "Latinos and the Changing Face of America," The American People (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004).
79. The 1970 Census was the first census to include a question on Spanish-origin for a sample of respondents (see Table 1, page 10, and Box 3, page 8).
80. Gilbertson, Fitzpatrick, and Yang, "Hispanic Intermarriage in New York City";
81. and Anderson and Saenz, "Structural Determinants."
82. Hawaii's Hispanic population is distinctive from mainland Hispanics in several ways. In Hawaii, most Hispanics identify as "other Hispanics" or Puerto Rican; few identify as Mexican. About one-third of married Hispanics in Hawaii reported more than one race, and more than one-tenth of married Hispanics in Hawaii reported themselves as Filipino or Hawaiian on the race question.
83. Edmonston, Lee, and Passel, "Recent Trends in Intermarriage and Immigration."
84. Edmonston, Lee, and Passel, "Recent Trends in Intermarriage and Immigration."
85. Goldstein and Morning, "The Multiple Race Population";
86. and Perlmann and Waters, "Introduction," in The New Race Question.
87. See Jeffrey S. Passel, "The Growing American Indian Population, 1960-1990: Beyond Demography," in Changing Numbers, Changing Needs: American Indian Demography and Public Health, ed. Gary D. Sandefur, Ronald R. Rindfuss, and Barney Cohen (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1996): chap. 4.
88. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2003, 123d ed. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003): table 227.
89. See also Grace Kao and Jennifer S. Thompson, "Racial and Ethnic Stratification in Educational Achievement and Attainment," Annual Review of Sociology 29 (2003): 417-43.
90. Howard Schuman et al., Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations, rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).
91. Maria Krysan, "Data Update to Racial Attitudes in America," an updated website to complement Schuman et al., "Racial Attitudes," accessed online at http://tigger.uic.edu, on March 6, 2005.
92. Zebroski, "Black-White Intermarriages";
93. and Randall Kennedy, "Interracial Intimacy," The Atlantic Monthly 290, no. 5 (December 2002).
94. See DeWayne Wickham, "Poll Has Numbers Too Good to be True," USA Today, July 10, 2001.
95. Edmonston, Lee, and Passel, "Recent Trends in Intermarriage";
96. Perlmann and Waters, "Introduction," in The New Race Question;
97. and Matthew Snipp, "Some Observations About Racial Boundaries and the Experiences of American Indians," Ethnic and Racial Studies 20, no. 4 (1997): 667-89.