A visa to "snitch": An addendum to Cox and Posner

Notre Dame Law Review

Volumn 87, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 973-1026

  Brown, Eleanor Marie Lawrence ^a  

^a GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84861993946     PISSN: 07453515     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (211)

1. See Adam B. Cox & Eric A. Posner, The Second-Order Structure of Immigration Law, 59 STAN. L. REV. 809, 811 (2007).
2. For a response, see Hiroshi Motomura, Comment, Choosing Immigrants, Making Citizens, 59 STAN. L. REV. 857-58 (2007).
3. see STEPHEN H. LEGOMSKY & CRISTINA M. RODRIGUEZ, IMMIGRATION AND REFUGEE LAW AND POLICY, 12-24 (5th ed. 2009).
4. See generally Eleanor Marie Lawrence Brown, Outsourcing Immigration Compliance, 77 FORDHAM L. REV. 2475 (2009).
5. see PATRICK BOLTON & MATHIAS DEWATRIPONT, CONTRACT THEORY 31-34 (2005).
6. For a broader discussion of ex ante versus ex post approaches to regulation, partly because of informauon asymmetry, see STEVEN SHAVELL, ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ACCIDENT LAW 277-81 (1987). Cox and Posner's primary focus is on the mechanisms of screening immigrants (that is, persons who are admitted for long-term residence and possibly citizenship).
7. For broader reflections on the applications of economic principles to immigration law including the admission of short-term guests, see Michael J. Trebilcock, Immigration Policy, in THE NEW PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF ECONOMICS AND THE LAW 259 (Peter Newman ed., 1998).
8. See also Michael J. Trebilcock, The Law and Economics of Immigration Policy, 5 AM. L. & ECON. REV. 271 (2003);
9. Michael J. Trebilcock & Matdhew Sudak, The Political Economy of Emigration and Immigration, 81 N. Y. U. L. REV. 234 (2006).
10. The new emphasis on federal screening of elites is discussed in Philip Shenon, Your Children Could be Terrorists, THE DAILY BEAST (May 21, 2010, 5:47 AM), http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2010-05-21/faisal-shahzad- case-spurs-fedsto-warn-pakistans-leaders-check-your-families-for-terrorism-ties/ .
11. See PIERRE BOURDIEU, THE STATE NOBILITY (1996) (using a classic sociological utilization of the term "elite").
12. See also JANINE R. WEDEL, SHADOW ELITE (2009), for a contemporary utilization of the term, which is generally used to refer to a small group of people who control a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, and access to decision making. A recent issue of The Economist also discusses the extraordinary influence of these elites, with a particular focus on elites in the developing world.
13. See The Rich and The Rest: What to Do (and Not Do) About Inequality, ECONOMIST, Jan. 22, 2011, at 13. In social science circles, the term "elite" has long been associated with Marx scholars.
14. See generally TOM BOTTOMORE, ELITES AND SOCIETY (2d ed. 1993) (describing Marx's theory of social classes). However, the term has long had broader currency shorn of Marxist connotations, and there have been several landmark studies of economic, political, academic, and cultural elites, primarily in the "West", but also more broadly.
15. See generally G. WILLIAM DORNHOFF, WHO RULES AMERICA? (1967);
16. FLOYD HUNTER, COMMUNITY POWER STRUCTURE (1953);
17. C. WRIGHT MILLS, THE POWER ELITE (1956);
18. MICHAEL SCHWARTZ, THE STRUCTURE OF POWER IN AMERICA (1987);
19. ROBERT D. PUTNAM, A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF POLITICAL ELITES (1976) (all containing detailed anthropological, sociological, or political science studies of how elites function).
20. Bill Gates's testimony is summarized in Miriam Jordan, Skilled Worker Visa Applicants Expected to Soar, WALL ST. J., Mar., 31 2008, at A2.
21. See also Competitiveness and Innovation on the Committee's 50th Anniversary with Bill Gates, Chairman of Microsoft: Hearing Before the H. Comm. on Sci. & Tech., 110th Cong. 138 (2008) (statement of William H. Gates, Chairman, Microsoft), available at http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/ billg/speeches/2008/congress.mspx;
22. Stuart Anderson, 40 Percent of Fortune 500 Companies Founded by Immigrants or Their Children, FORBES (June 19, 2011, 11:04 AM), http://www.forbes.com/sites/stuartanderson/2011/06/19/40-percent-of-fortune-500- companies-founded-by-immigrants-or-their-children/.
23. The invention of the Blackberry smart phone in Canada is discussed in THOMAS FRIEDMAN, THE WORLD IS FLAT 249 (2007).
24. See Richard Bernstein, Upper Crust is Often Drawn to Terrorism, N. Y. TIMES (Dec. 31, 2009), http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/31/us/31 iht-letter.html.
25. Times Topics, Faisal Shahzad, N. Y. TIMES, http://topics.ny times.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/s/faisal-shahzad/index.html?scp= 1&sq=Shahzad%20&st=cse (last updated Oct. 5, 2010). While Shahzad had recendy fallen on hard times, by virtue of his advantages of birth and Western education, he was undoubtedly a member of the global elite.
26. See Andrew Sullivan, A Very Bourgeois Would-Be Bomber, ATLANTIC MONTHLY: DAILY DISH (Dec. 26, 2009, 10:53 AM), www.theatlantic.com/daily-dish/archive/ 2009/12/a-very-bourgeois-would-be-bomber/192537/.
27. MUZAFFAR A. CHISHTI ET AL., MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE, AMERICA'S CHALLENGE 7-14 (2003).
28. See also U. S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, THE SEPTEMBER 11 DETAINEES: A REVIEW OF THE TREATMENT OF ALIENS HELD ON IMMIGRATION CHARGES IN CONNECTION WITH THE INVESTIGATION OF THE SEPTEMBER 11 ATTACKS (2003) (summarizing government response to the 9/11 attacks);
29. U. S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, SUPPLEMENTAL REPORT ON SEPTEMBER 11 DETAINEES' ALLEGATIONS OF ABUSE AT THE METROPOLITAN DETENTION CENTER IN NEW YORK (2003) (describing allegations of abuse in New York in response to post-9/11 investigations).
30. See generally GRAHAM E. FULLER, THE FUTURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM (2003) (examining political Islam, its evolution, and its role in the future);
31. OLIVIER ROY, THE FAILURE OF POLITICAL ISLAM (1994) (claiming that the Islamic revolution, state and economy are myths). Central tenets include the obligation of Muslims to obey sharia (Islamic law);
32. See generally FRED HALLIDAY, ISLAM & THE MYTH OF CONFRONTATION (1996) (analyzing the contemporary Middle East in a variety of ways);
33. VOICES OF RESURGENT ISLAM (John L. Esposito ed., 1983) (examining the Islamic resurgence). 29 Since then there have been media reports that several other well-heeled Pakistanis-including some with U. S. visas-are well known among Pakistani elites to harbor terrorist sympathies. Yet, this information is not being shared with U. S. intelligence.
34. Anahad O'Connor & Eric Schmitt, U. S. Says Plane Passenger Tried to Detonate Device: Popping Sound on a Trans-Atlantic Flight Was First Thought to be Fireworks, N. Y. TIMES, Dec. 26, 2009, at A1;
35. Kathleen Gray & Christina Hall, Attempted Attack Raises Airport Security Concerns, DET. FREE PRESS (Dec. 26, 2009), http://www.freep. com/print/article/20091226/NEWS05/91226035/Attempted-attack-raises-airport- security-concerns;
36. James Sturcke, Flight Terror Suspect AbdulmutaUab Charged With Trying to Blow Up Jet, GUARDIAN UK (Dec. 27, 2009), http://www.guardian. co.uk/world/2009/dec/27/us-terror-flight-abdulmutallab-charged.
37. Duncan Gardham et al., Detroit Terror Attack: Profile of Umar Farouk Abdul Mutallab, DAILY TELEGRAPH (Dec. 28, 2009), http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/6896128/Detroit-terror-attack-profile-of-Umar- Farouk-Abdul-Mutallab.html (referring to trips to both the United States and the European Union and implying that he received several visas from these jurisdictions to travel).
38. See Adam Nossiter, Lomely Trek to Radicalism for Nigerian Terror Suspect, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 16, 2010, at A1.
39. See D. B. Grady, Why Heads Should Roll, ATLANTIC MONTHLY (Jan. 8, 2010, 10:05 AM), http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2010/01/why-heads-should- roll/33175/.
40. See Maureen Dowd, Captain Obvious Learns the Limits of Cool, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 10, 2010, at WK11. The prominent blogger, D. B. Grady, cites several opinion leaders expressing this view.
41. See Dan Markel et al., Criminal Justice and the Challenge of Family Ties, 2007 U. ILL. L. REV. 1147, 1155-56.
42. Mary M. Chapman, "Shocked" Nigerians in U. S. Express Fears of Guilt by Association After Arrest, N. Y. TIMES (Dec. 29, 2009), http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/us/30detroit.html?-r=1.
43. Judas Iscariot famously "snitched" on Jesus. Matthew 26:14-15. Natapoff notes the universality of the Judas narrative.
44. Alexandra Natapoff, Snitching: The Institutional and Communal Consequences, 73 U. CIN. L. REV. 645, 651 (2004).
45. See PEW GLOBAL ATTITUDES PROJECT, MOST MUSLIM PUBLICS NOT SO EASILY MOVED (2009), available at http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=264 (tracking attitudes toward the United States in Muslim countries).
46. This history is summarized in John A. Scanlan, Aliens in the Marketplace of Ideas: The Government, the Academy, and the McCarran-Walter Act, 66 TEX. L. REV. 1481, 1496 (1988).
47. See Official: U. S. Revokes Visas of Honduran President, 15 Others, CNN (Sept. 12, 2009, 8:35 PM), http://edition. cnn. com/2009/WORLD/americas/09/12/ honduras.visas.revoked/.
48. See COUNCIL ON AMERICAN-ISLAMIC RELATIONS, THE STATUS OF MUSLIM CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE UNITED STATES (2002), available at http://www.cair.com/ CivilRights/CivilRightsReports/2002Report.aspx;
49. see also PEW RESEARCH CTR., MUSUM AMERICANS 35(2007), available at http://pewresearch.org/assets/pdf/muslim-americans.pdf;
50. Omar Sacirbey, Muslims Look to Blacks for Civil Rights Guidance, RELIGION NEWS SERVICE (May 15, 2006), http://www.religionnews.com/index.phpp/ rnspremiumtext/muslims-look-to-blacks-for-civil-rights-guidance/ (documenting the concerns of Muslim lobby groups regarding prosecutorial heavy-handedness).
51. See generally BY ANY MEANS NECESSARY (George Breitman ed., 1970) (providing a variety of works by Malcom X);
52. MALCOLM X, THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF MALCOLM X (with the assistance of Alex Haley) (1992);
53. MANNING MARABLE, ON MALCOLM X (1992).
54. See 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (15) (H) (2006) (containing H (1) (B) provisions for the admission of the highly skilled).
55. See 8 U. S. C. § 1153 (b) (5) (2006)
56. See 8 U. S. C. § 1153 (b) (1) (A) - (B)
57. See 8 U. S. C. § 1101 (a) (15) (H) (containing guest worker provisions).
58. See GERALD NEUMAN, STRANGERS TO THE CONSTITUTION 22 (1996).
59. See ARISTIDE R. ZOLBERG, A NATION BY DESIGN 433-35 (2006).
60. see PATRICK WEIL, ALL OR NOTHING? WHAT THE UNITED STATES CAN LEARN FROM EUROPE AS IT CONTEMPLATES CIRCULAR MIGRATION AND LEGALIZATION FOR UNDOCUMENTED IMMIGRANTS 7, 12 (Immigration Paper Series, 2010), available at http://database.gmfus.org/rs/ct.aspx? ct= 24F76C1FD6E40AEDC1D180ACD22F921ADCBE5588F8A52DA2349D55444994E E21FC480CCED0D813CA335D773AA95658FE9FEA874847170E4EFF895E528EA32 B9BC0599DFB0600D5A3404D276334C62FA51D8F2756E6638A3D1257F04.
61. See Gerald L. Neuman, The Lost Century of American Immigration Law (1776-1875), 93 COLUM. L. REV. 1833, 1841-57 (1993).
62. See WORLD BANK, GLOBAL ECONOMIC PROSPECTS at vii (2006), available at http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2005/ll/ 14/000112742-20051114174928/Rendered/PDF/343200GEP02 006.pdf. In the last three decades, the population of migrants in high income countries has doubled, registering an annual growth rate of three percent.
63. See generally LANT PRITCHETT, LET THEIR PEOPLE COME 2 (2006) ("[T]he United States is in the throes of a deep and contentious debate about immigration policy.").
64. See, e.g., DOUGLAS S. MASSEY ET AL., BEYOND SMOKE AND MIRRORS (2002) (discussing the series of legislative and bureaucratic changes that fundamentally altered the rules under which the Mexico-U. S. migration system operated);
65. Douglas S. Massey, Borderline Madness: America's Counterproductive Immigration Policy, in DEBATING IMMIGRATION 129 (Carol M. Swain ed., 2007) (discussing inconsistencies in immigration reform since 1986).
66. See generally CTR. FOR STRATEGIC AND INT'L STUDIES, SECURITY CONTROLS ON THE ACCESS OF FOREIGN SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS TO THE UNITED STATES (2005), available at http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/051005-whitepaper.pdf.
67. see David Allen Sklansky, Crime, Immigration, and Ad Hoc Instrutnentalism, NEW CRIM. L. REV. (forthcoming 2012). This issue is also discussed in the following articles
68. Jennifer M. Chacón, Managing Migration Through Crime, 109 COLUM. L. REV. SIDEBAR 135 (2009);
69. Stephen H. Legomsky, The New Path of Immigration Law: Asymmetric Incorporation of Criminal Justice Norms, 64 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 469, 480 (2007);
70. Teresa A. Miller, Citizenship & Severity: Recent Immigration Reforms and the New Penology, 17 GEO. IMMIGR. LJ. 611 (2003);
71. Juliet Stumpf, The Crimmigration Crisis: Immigrants, Crime, and Sovereign Power, 56 AM. U. L. REV. 367 (2006).
72. For a recent addition to this literature, see Ingrid V. Eagly, Prosecuting Immigration, 104 NW. U. L. REV. 1281 (2010).
73. See, e.g., Nonimmigrant Visa Application, U. S. DEP'T OF STATE, https://evisaforms. state.gov/dsl56.asp (last visited Nov. 22, 2011).
74. See Ayelet Shachar, The Race for Talent: Highly Skilled Migrants and Competitive Immigration Regimes, 81 N. Y. U. L. REV. 148, 171-79 (2006).
75. See, e.g., HIROSHI MOTOMURA, AMERICANS IN WAITING (2006);
76. see also Adam B. Cox & Eric A. Posner, The Rights of Migrants: An Optimal Contract Framework, 84 N. Y. U. L. REV. 1403, 1407 (2009) (applying a similar metaphor of a "contract" between the state and the migrant);
77. See Fong Yue Ting v. United States, 149 U. S. 698, 730 (1893)
78. For a good introduction to the global competition for skilled persons see MICHAEL E. PORTER, ON COMPETITION at xi-xxxi (2008).
79. See also B. LINDSAY LOWELL ET AL., INST, FOR THE STUDY OF INT'L MIGRATION, GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, FOREIGN STUDENTS COMING TO AMERICA (2007);
80. VIVEK WADHWA ET AL., DUKE UNIVERSITY, SCHOOL OF INFORMATION, U. C. BERKELEY, AMERICA'S NEW IMMIGRANT ENTREPRENEURS 5 (2007);
81. Gnanaraj Chellaraj et al., The Contribution of International Graduate Students to U. S. Innovation, 16 REV. INT'L ECON. 444, 458-59 (2008);
82. William Kerr, Ethnic Scientific Communities and International Technology Diffusion, 90 REV. ECON. & STAT. 518, 536 (2008);
83. William R. Kerr & William F. Lincoln, The Supply Side of Innovation: H-1B Visa Reforms and U. S. Ethnic Invention, 28 J. LAB. ECON. 474, 504-05 (2010);
84. AnnaLee Saxenian, Silicon Valley's New Immigrant High-Growth Entrepreneurs, 16 ECON. DEV. Q. 20, 29-30 (2002);
85. Paula E. Stephan & Sharon G. Levin, Exceptional Contributions to US Science by the Foreign-Born and Foreign-Educated, 20 POPULATION RES. & POL. REV. 59, 74-76 (2001);
86. Madeline Zavodny, The H-1B Program and its Effects on Information Technology Workers, FED. RES. BANK ATLANTA ECON. REV. 1, 8-10 (2003);
87. Sari Pekkala Kerr & William R. Kerr, Economic Impacts of Immigration: A Survey (Harvard Business School, Working Paper, No. 09-013, 2011) (on file with author).
88. See Nonimmigrant Visas, UNITED STATES DIPLOMATIC MISSION TO NIGERIA, http://nigeria.us embassy.gov/non-immigrant-visas.html (last visited Nov. 22, 2011).
89. See, e.g., Dora Akunyulim, Mutallab is a Stranger, NEXT, http://234next.com/csp/cms/sites/Next/News/5503108-147/Mutallab-is-a-stranger, -Dora-Akunyili.csp (last visited Nov. 22, 2011) (consolidating a variety of Nigerian newspaper outlets which reported that Father Mutallab had visited the U. S. consulate repeatedly to voice his concerns).
90. See Press Freedom Index 2009, REPORTERS WITHOUT BORDERS, http://en. rsf.org/spip. php?page=classement&id-rubrique=1001 (last visited Nov. 22, 2011). While Nigeria is still in the bottom half, it is clearly more highly ranked than all the other countries mentioned.
91. See Schengen: Europe Without Internal Borders, EUROPEAN COMMISSION, http://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/policies/borders/borders-schengen-en. htm (last visited Nov. 22, 2011).
92. Peter Walker et al., Rich and Privileged-The Gilded Life of the Would-Be Plane Bomber, GUARDIAN UK (Dec. 27, 2009, 2:17 PM), http://www.guardian. co.uk/uk/2009/dec/27/gilded-life-of-plane-bomber.
93. But see Xan Rice, Bombing Suspect Was Pious Pupil Who Shunned High Life of the Rich, GUARDIAN UK (Dec. 31, 2009, 5:50 PM), http://www.guardian. co.uk/world/2009/dec/31/bombing-suspect-abdulmutallab-nigeria-home (noting that his affluence appeared to have caused him some discomfort).
94. See Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, Pub. L. No. 82-414, § 214, 66 Stat. 165, 189-90 (1952)
95. (codified as amended at v8 U. S. C. § § 101, 214 (a) (1996)). The Nigerian Information Minister noted that he "sneaked into" Nigeria, implying that the Nigeria security forces were on alert and would have detained him if he had stopped in Nigeria.
96. See PEW GLOBAL ATTITUDE PROJECT, supra note 40. The percentage of Nigerians with non-immigrant visas is miniscule.
97. For a summary of the figures, see U. S. DEP'T OF STATE, ADJUSTED REFUSAL RATE, http://travel.state.gov/pdf/FY10.pdf. In 2010, 64, 279 Nigerians received non-immigrant visas.
98. See U. S. DEP'T OF STATE, FY 2010 NON IMMIGRANT VISAS ISSUED, available at http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/FY10NrVDetailTable.pdf. This is a tiny percentage of the general population. Approximately 0.03% of Nigerians applied for non-immigrant visas and 0.02% were approved. To provide some context as to what a miniscule percentage of the Nigerian population has non-immigrant visas, consider the similar rates for Jamaica, another developing country. Although Jamaica is a much smaller country with 1.7% of Nigeria's population, a much higher percentage of Jamaicans have non-immigrant visas
99. See U. S. DEP'T OF STATE, FY 2010 NON IMMIGRANT VISAS ISSUED, supra. Since Jamaica only has a population of 2.7 million people, 1.6% of Jamaicans were recipients of non-immigrant visas in 2008.
100. See David Seminara, No Coyote Needed: U. S. Visas Still an Easy Ticket in Developing Countries, BACKGROUNDER (2008), http://www.cis.org/articles/2008/ back208.pdf.
101. Examining the U. S.-Nigeria Relationship in a Time of Transition: Hearing Before the Subcomm. on African Affairs of the S. Comm. on Foreign Relations, 111 th Cong. 27 (2010) (statement of Hon. John Campbell, Ralph Bunche Senior Fellow for Africa Policy Studies, Council on Foreign Relations).
102. See Eric Lipton et al., Review of Jet Bomb Plot Show More Missed Clues, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 18, 2010, at A1, A14;
103. Eric Lipton & Scott Shane, More Questions on Why Suspect Was Not Stopped, N. Y. TIMES, Dec. 28, 2009, at A1, A3;
104. Sheryl Gay Stolberg, Countertenor Chief Faces Rough Week as Hearings Begin, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 17, 2010, at A18, available at http://www.nytimes.com/ 2010/01/17/us/politics/171eiter.html.
105. See Immigration & Nationality Act of 1952, Pub L. No. 82-414, 66 Stat. 165, 189 (1952)
106. (codified as amended at 8 U. S. C. § § 101, 214 (a) (1996))
107. See also Visitor Visa-Business and Pleasure, U. S. DEP'T OF STATE, http://travel.state.gov/visa/temp/types/types-1262.html (last visited Nov. 22, 2011)
108. See Samuel Gregory, Adebayo Ogunlesi, TIME, Dec. 2, 2002, at 56, available at http://www.time.com/time/2002/globalinfluentials/gbiogixnlesi.html (discussing the elite credentials of Adebayo Ogunlesi).
109. see also Scott Shane, U. S. Approves Targeted Killing of Radical Muslim Cleric Tied to Domestic Terror Suspects, N. Y. TIMES, April 7, 2010, at A12, available at http://nytimes.com/2010/04/07/world/middleeast/07yemen. html (discussing the influence of a Yemeni American cleric on several would-be bombers).
110. Venetia Thompson, My Classmate, The Plane Bomber, DAILY BEAST (Dec. 30, 2009, 5:51 PM), http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2009-12-30/ myclassmate-the-undie-bomber.html.
111. See Faisal Shahzad Kept Low Profile in U. S., CBS NEWS (May, 4, 2010, 7:23 PM), available at www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/05/04/national/main6459360. shtml.
112. See also CTR. FOR STRATEGIC AND INT'L STUDIES, supra note 69.
113. George Packer, Comment: Keep Out, THE NEW YORKER 59, 59 (Oct. 16, 2006)
114. See JANINE KEIL, INST, FOR THE STUDY OF DIPLOMACY, GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, VOICES OF HOPE, VOICES OF FRUSTRATION (2006), available at http://wwwl2.george town. edu/sfs/isd/ISD-Visa-Report.pdf;
115. BRIGITTE SUTER & MICHAEL JANDL, INTERNATIONAL CTR. FOR MIGRATION POLICY DEV., COMPARATRVE STUDY ON POLICIES TOWARD FOREIGN GRADUATES (2006);
116. Statement and Recommendations on Visa Problems Harming America's Scientific, Economic, and Security Interests, NATIONAL ACADEMIES 1 (May 12, 2004), available at www.aaas.org/news/releases/2004/0512wisa.pdf;
117. see also Robert Sedgwick, Education Professionals Caution about Potential Fallout from Sept. 11, 15 WORLD EDUC. NEWS & REVIEWS, (Jan./Feb. 2002), available at http://www.wes.org/ewenr/02 jan/feature.htm.
118. See David Karemera et al., A Gravity Model Analysis of International Migration to North America, 32 APPLIED ECON. 1745, 1752 (2000).
119. For a summary report, see EXECUTIVE SUMMARY TO THE 9/11 COMMISSION REPORT, FINAL REPORT OF THE NATIONAL COMMISSION ON TERRORIST ATTACKS UPON THE UNITED STATES (2004) [hereinafter EXECUTIVE SUMMARY]. A succinct review of the failures that preceded 9/11, with a particular emphasis on intelligence failures is included in a New York Times editorial.
120. See Editorial, Eight Years Later, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 8, 2010, at A26.
121. See EXECUTIVE SUMMARY, supra note 128.
122. See Mystery of CIA Bomber's Identity, BBC NEWS (Jan. 5, 2010, 1:30 PM) available at http://news.bbc. Uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/south-asia/8441292.stm.
123. See The Bomber's Wife, NEWSWEEK (Jan. 6, 2010, 7:00 PM) http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/201O/01/07/the-bomber-s-wife.html.
124. See R. Jeffrey Smith et al., CIA Bomber Struck Just Before Search, WASH. POST, Jan. 10, 2010, at A12.
125. See Alex Hannaford, The Toughest Boy in School, GUARDIAN UK (Feb. 22, 2005), http://www.guardian. co.uk/world/2005/feb/23/alqaida.usa.
126. Stephen McGinty, The English Islamic Terrorist, SCOTSMAN (July 15, 2002, 8:00 PM), http://www.scotsman. com/news/the-english-islamic-terrorist-l-612783.
127. The best summary of the events surrounding the coup is included in William Finnegan, Letter from Honduras: "An Old-Fashioned Coup", NEW YORKER, Nov. 30, 2009, at 38.
128. see also William Finnegan, Gone South, NEW YORKER (Dec. 3, 2009), http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2009/12/honduras-zelaya.html (chronicling the diplomatic response of the United States).
129. See JOEL WATSON, STRATEGY 1-7 (2002) (providing a good summary for the nontechnical reader).
130. Jamaica SuperClubs Exits Cuba after U. S. Threats, BNET (Cuba News), July 1, 2004, available at http://www.thefreelibrary.com/ Jamaica's+SuperClubs+exits+Cuba+after+ U. S.+threats.-a0118952223.
131. See Examining the U. S.-Nigeria Relationship in a Time of Transition: Hearing Before the Subcomm. on African Affairs of the S. Coram, on Foreign Relations, 111th Cong. 27 (2010)
132. See Profile: Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, BBC NEWS (Oct. 12, 2011, 111:57 AM), www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-11545509.
133. See A SMALL WORLD, www.asmallworld.net (last visited Nov. 22, 2011) (A small world is "a private community of internationally minded people from around the world", typically featuring stories about elites in business, education, government, the nongovernmental sector, and culture from all five continents).
134. Pub. L. No. 107-45, 115 Stat. 258 (Oct. 1, 2001)).
135. See 78 IR, at 1816-17 (Dec. 3, 2001) "). There are also other visas that incentivize "snitching" including the following: the U and T visas.
136. See generally Mark S. Granovetter, The Strength of Weak Ties, 78 AM. J. OF SOC. 1360 (1973) (discussing the importance of "linkage" to the development of sociological theory).
137. Jennifer Valentino-DeVries, Facebook's Valuation: By the Numbers, WALL ST. J. (Jan 3, 2011, 12:33 PM), http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2011/01/03/ facebooks-valuation-by-the-numbers/.
138. See Daryl J. Levinson, Collective Sanctions, 56 STAN. L. REV. 345, 349 (2003).
139. see also Lewis A. Kornhauser & Richard L. Revesz, Joint and Several Liability, in 2 THE NEW PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF ECONOMICS AND THE LAW 371 (1998) (defining terms);
140. Alan O. Sykes, Vicarious Liability, in 3 THE NEW PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF ECONOMICS AND THE LAW 673-77 (1998) (defining term).
141. For a further discussion in the law review literature of the moral and functional justifications for collective sanctions, see also Saul Levmore, Rethinking Group Responsibility and Strategic Threats in Biblical Texts and Modern Law, 71 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 85, 88-90 (1995).
142. See Avner Greif, Contract Enforceability and Economic Institutions in Early Trade: The Maghribi Traders' Coalition, 83 AM. ECON. REV. 525 (1993);
143. Avner Greif, Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade: Evidence on the Maghribi Traders, 49 J. ECON. HIST. 857 (1989).
144. For a summary of First Amendment challenges to McCarthyism in universities see, ELLEN W. SCHRECKER, NO IVORY TOWER 3-11 (1986);
145. see also DAVID CAUTE, THE GREAT FEAR (1978) (discussing the targeting of "radical" students and professors by different federal and state investigations);
146. DIANE RAVITCH, THE TROUBLED CRUSADE (1983) (same).
147. See CHARLES STUART, NEVER TRUST A LOCAL 138 (2005).
148. For a good discussion of hindsight bias, see Kim A. Kamin & Jeffrey J. Rachlinski, Ex Post ? Ex Ante: Determining Liability in Hindsight, 19 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 89 (1995) (discussing evidence of hindsight bias in diverse fora from jury to surgical decision making).
149. THOMAS ALEXANDER ALEINIKOFF ET AL., IMMIGRATION AND CITIZENSHIP 651 (5th ed. 2003).
150. 8 U. S. C § 1182 (a) (3) (B) (iv) (VI) - (aa) (2006).
151. APPLICATION FOR ADVANCE PERMISSION TO ENTER AS A NON-IMMIGRANT, available at www.uscis.gov/files/form/i-192instr.pdf ("Do not file this application if you are [a visa applicant who is] inadmissible under INA section 212 (a) (3) (D) for being a member of a Communist or other totalitarian party....").
152. Olivier Serrat, Social Network Analysis, KNOWLEDGE SOLUTIONS, Feb. 28, 2009, at 28, available at http://www.cin. vfpe.br/idal/SN%20-%20PFD/Social- Network-Analysis.pdf
153. see also Noel M. Tichy et al., Social Network Analysis for Organizations, 4 ACAD, OF MGMT. REV. 507, 510-13 (1979) (describing methods of social network analysis).
154. See Rich Tehrani, Terrorist Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab a Social Networker, TMCNET (Dec. 29, 2009), http://blog.tmcnet.com/blog/rich-tehrani/security/ terrorist-umar-farouk-abdulmutallab-a-social-networker.html;
155. see also Adam Gabbatt, Web Postings of Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, GUARDIAN UK (Dec. 29, 2009, 11:52 AM)
156. http://www.guardian. co.uk/world/2009/dec/29/web-postings-umar-farouk- abdulmutallab (providing examples of Abdulmutallab's postings).
157. See 8 U. S. C § 1101 (A) (15) (B) (2006);
158. 22 C. F. R. § 41. 31 (b) (1) (2006).
159. See Idris Ahmed, Mutallab, An Accomplished Banker, SUNDAY TRUST (Dec.27, 2009, 12:28 AM), http://sundaytrust.com.ng/?option=com-content&view= article&id=2390:mutallab-an-accomplished-banker&catid=41: latest-news&Itemid=26.
160. Chido Nwangwu, The Mutallabs: Terror-bound Son Farouk and Business Mogul Father Umar, USA AFRICA ONLINE, (Dec. 26, 2009), http://www.usafricaonline.com/ mutallabs-chido-usafrica
161. See, e.g., Oliver E. Williamson, Credible Commitments: Using Hostages to Support Exchange, 73 AM. ECON. REV. 519 (1983) (arguing that hostages are used for economic purposes).
162. From a popular Nigerian diaspora blogger, Tochi." Tochi, In Spite of Mutallab I Am Still Here, AND TOCHI SAYS... WHOSE THOUGHTS ARE YOU THINKING (Jan. 11, 2010), http://www.tochi.us/blog/?p=1572.
163. Dennis H. Wrong, The Oversocialized Conception of Man in Modern Sociology, 26 AM. SOC. REV. 183, 185 (1961).
164. For a summary of such studies, see Donna M. Bishop, Legal and Extralegal Barriers to Delinquency: A Panel Analysis, 22 CRIMINOLOCY 403 (1984).
165. For a summary of more recent work, see Herbert Jacob, Deterrent Effects of Formal and Informal Sanctions, 2 LAW & POL'Y Q. 61, 69 (1980).
166. See Adam L. Silverman, Just War, Jihad, and Terrorism: A Comparison of Western and Islamic Norms for the Use of Political Violence, 44 J. CHURCH & STATE 73 (2002).
167. See Bernth Lindfors, A Last Shot at the 20th-century Canon, in NEW DIRECTIONS IN AFRICAN LITERATURE 109 (Ernest N. Emenyonu ed., 2006) (noting that in both Soyinka and Achebe's texts, the protagonists go to great lengths to extirpate shame and restore family honor, even by committing ritual suicide).
168. Micheline Maynard & Liz Robbins, New Restrictions Quickly Added for Air Passengers, N. Y. TIMES (Dec. 26, 2009), http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/27/ us/27security.html.
169. See Reuben Abati, Mutallab: We Are Guilty by Association, NIGERIAN VILLAGE SQUARE (Jan. 3, 2010, 05:01 AM), http://www.nigeriavillagesquare.com/ articles/reuben-abati/mutallab-we-are-guilty-by-association. html.
170. Two such classic texts are MICHAEL BARKUN, LAW WITHOUT SANCTIONS 20 (1968)
171. and E. ADAMSON HOEBEL, THE LAW OF PRIMITIVE MAN 232 (1954).
172. Behold, they have rejected the word of the Lord, And what kind of wisdom do they have?" Jeremiah 8:9 (New American Standard).
173. See Richard H. McAdams, The Origin, Development, and Regulation of Norms, 96 MICH. L. REV. 338, 350-75 (1997). The point is discussed in all of the following texts, which discuss individual shaming, particularly as a mechanism of mitigating collective shame.
174. See generally COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY (Larry May & Stacey Hoffman eds., 1991);
175. PETER A. FRENCH, COLLECTIVE AND CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY (1984);
176. CHRISTOPHER KUTZ, COMPLICITY (2000);
177. LARRY MAY, SHARING RESPONSIBILITY (1992);
178. LARRY MAY, THE MORALITY OF GROUPS (1987);
179. Joel Feinberg, Collective Responsibility, 65 J. PHIL. 674 (1968).
180. Corey Kilgannon & Jeffrey E. Singer, Shoplifting Suspects' Choice: Pay or Be Shamed, N. Y. TIMES, June 22, 2010, at A1.
181. See, e.g., Donald L. Horowitz, Conciliatory Institutions and Constitutional Processes in Post-Conflict States, 49 WM. & MARY L. REV. 1213 (2008);
182. Jamie O'Connell, Here Interest Meets Humanity: How to End the War and Support Reconstruction in Liberia, and the Case for Modest American Leadership, 17 HARV. HUM. RTS. J. 207 (2004);
183. Paul Richards, War and Peace in Sierra Leone, 25 FLETCHER F. WORLD AFF. 41 (2001).
184. The utilization of the term "nudge" here is a play on the utilization of the term in RICHARD H. THALER & CASS R. SUNSTEIN, NUDGE (2008). The book draws on research in psychology and behavioral economics to defend libertarian paternalism and active engineering of choice architecture.
185. See, e.g., Sameer M. Ashar, Immigration Enforcement and Subordination: The Consequences of Racial Profiling after September 11, 34 CONN. L. REV. 1185 (2002);
186. see also, Susan M. Akram & Kevin R. Johnson, Race, Civil Rights, and Immigration Law After September 11, 2001: The Targeting of Arabs and Muslims, 58 N. Y. U. ANN. SURV. AM. L. 295 (2002);
187. Samuel R. Gross & Debra Livingston, Racial Profiling Under Attack, 102 COLUM. L. REV. 1413, 1413 (2002);
188. Marie A. Taylor, Immigration Enforcement Post-September 11: Safeguarding the Civil Rights of Middle Eastern-American and Immigrant Communities, 17 GEO. IMMICR. LJ. 63, 72-85 (2002);
189. Leti Volpp, The Citizen and the Terrorist, 49 UCLA L. REV. 1575 (2002);
190. Karen C. Tumlin, Comment, Suspect First: How Terrorism Policy is Reshaping Immigration Policy, 92 CALIF. L. REV. 1173 (2004).
191. See Ross Douthat, More on Rauf and Moderate Islam, EVOLUTIONS (Aug. 27, 2010, 9:10 AM), http://douthat.blogs. nytimes.com/2010/08/27/more-on-rauf-and- moderate-islam/.
192. For a summary of the transnationalism research, see Peggy Levitt, Saba and Ketchup: Transnational Migrants Straddle Two Worlds, in THE CONTEXTS READER 445 (Jeff Goodwin & James M. Jasper eds., 2008). The sociology literature generally refers to transnational persons as migrants who maintain strong connections to their countries of origin. The only person who seems to have incorporated this insight in the legal scholarship is Kim Barry.
193. See Kim Barry, Home and Away: The Construction of Citizenship in an Emigration Context, 81 N. Y. U. L. REV. 11 (2006).
194. See Adam Nossiter, Security Flaws in Nigeria Are Now Drawing Notice, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 2, 2010, at A10.
195. An accessible summary of the difference between the two types of duties is H. M. Malm, Directions of Justification in the Negative-Positive Duty Debate, 27 AM. PHIL. Q. 315 (1990).
196. Shelly Murphy, Pakistani Testified Before Grand Jury, BOSTON GLOBE, June 5, 2010, at B10, available at http://www.boston. com/news/local/massachusetts/ articles/2010/06/05/man-arrested-in-ny-terror-plot-tesdfied-before-grand-jury/.
197. GUIDO CALABRESI, IDEALS, BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, AND THE LAW 88 (1985).
198. Francis Fukuyama, Social Capital and Development. The Coming Agenda, in SOCIAL CAPITAL AND POVERTY REDUCTION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 35, 45 (Raul Atria et al. comps., 2004).
199. Kkindienst, 408 U. S. at 766
200. (quoung Boutilierv. INS, 387 U. S. 118, 123 (1967));
201. see also Am. Acad, of Religion v. Napolitano, 573 F.3d 115, 117 (2nd Cir. 2009);
202. Bustamante v. Mukasey, 531 F.3d 1059, 1061 (9th Cir. 2008);
203. Detroit Free Press v. Ashcroft, 303 F.3d 681, 682 (6th Cir. 2002);
204. Price v. INS, 41 F.2d 878, 842 (9th Cir. 1991).
205. The most comprehensive work in this regard is Barbara Miller's. BARBARA MILLER, NARRATIVES OF GUILT AND COMPLIANCE IN UNIFIED GERMANY (1999).
206. See Lee Hockstader, Palestinians Battle the Enemy Within: Menace of Israeli Collaborators Spavms Executions, Vigilantism, Revenge Killings, WASH. POST, Feb. 2, 2001, at A18.
207. See Editorial, Haunted By an Informer, BOSTON GLOBE, May 20, 2003.
208. VICTOR S. NAVASKY, NAMING NAMES (1980).
209. The playwright, Arthur Miller recognized this risk decades ago. On risks of snitching, see John Lahr's review of Arthur Miller's seminal play, A View from the Bridge. John Lahr, Devil in the Flesh: Arthur Miller and Noel Corwald on Acting Out, NEW YORKER, Feb. 1, 2010, at 78.
210. A good summary of the challenges of elite capture is included in Pranab Bardhan & Dilip Mookherjee, Capture and Governance at Local and National Levels, 90 AM. ECON. REV. 135 (2000)
211. and Jean-Philippe Platteau, Monitoring Elite Capture in Community-Driven Development, 35 DEV. & CHANGE 223 (2004).