The Cross-Race effect and eyewitness identification: How to improve recognition and reduce decision errors in eyewitness situations

Social Issues and Policy Review

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 83-113

  Wilson, John Paul ^a   Hugenberg, Kurt ^a   Bernstein, Michael J ^b  

^a MIAMI UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84872157369     PISSN: 17512395     EISSN: 17512409     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-2409.2012.01044.x     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Ackerman, J. M., Shapiro, J. R., Neuberg, S. L., Kenrick, D. T., Becker, D. V., Griskevicius, V., Maner, J. K., & Schaller, M. (2006). They all look the same to me (unless they're angry): From out-group homogeneity to outgroup-hetereogeneity. Psychological Science, 17, 836-840.
2. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice Washington, DC: Perseus.
3. Bartolomey, D. (2001). Cross-racial identification testimony and what not to do about it: A comment on the cross-racial jury charge and cross-racial expert identification testimony. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 247-252.
4. Bernstein, M. J., Young, S. G., & Hugenberg, K. (2007). The cross-category effect: Mere social categorization is sufficient to elicit an own-group bias in face recognition. Psychological Science, 18, 706-712.
5. Billig, M., & Milner, D. (1976). A spade is a spade in the eyes of the law. Psychology Today, 2, 13-16.
6. Brewer, M. B. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
7. Brigham, J. C. (1981). Accuracy of eyewitness evidence: How do attorneys see it Social Action and the Law, 7, 76-79.
8. Brigham, J. C., & Bothwell, R. K. (1983). The ability of prospective jurors to estimate the accuracy of eyewitness identifications. Law and Human Behavior, 7, 19-30.
9. Brigham, J. C., Maass, A., Snyder, L. D., & Spaulding, K. (1982). Accuracy of eyewitness identification in a field setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 673-681.
10. Brigham, J. C., & Ready, D. J. (1985). Own-race bias in lineup construction. Law and Human Behavior, 9, 415-424.
11. Carithers, M. W. (1970). School desegregation and racial cleavage, 1954-1970: A review of the literature. Journal of Social Issues, 26, 25-47.
12. Carlson, C. A., Gronlund, S. D., & Clark, S. E. (2008). Lineup composition, suspect position, and the sequential lineup advantage. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14, 118-128.
13. Clark, S. E. (2005). A re-examination of the effects of biased lineup instructions in eyewitness identification. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 575-604.
14. Clifford, B. R., & Richards, V. J. (1977). Comparison of recall by policemen and civilians under conditions of long and short durations of exposure. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 45, 503-512.
15. Corneille, O., Huart, J., Becquart, E., & Bredart, S. (2004). When memory shifts toward more typical category exemplars: Accentuation effects in the recollection of ethnically ambiguous faces. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 236-250.
16. Cutler, B. L., Penrod, S. D., & Dexter, H. R. (1990). Juror sensitivity to eyewitness identification evidence. Law and Human Behavior, 14, 185-191.
17. Cutler, B. L., Penrod, S. D., & Martens, T. K. (1987). Improving the reliability of eyewitness identification: Putting context into context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 629-637.
18. Deffenbacher, K. A. (1980). Eyewitness accuracy and confidence: Can we infer anything about their relationship Law and Human Behavior, 4, 243-260.
19. Deffenbacher, K. A., & Loftus, E. F. (1982). Do jurors share a common understanding concerning eyewitness behavior Law and Human Behavior, 6, 15-30.
20. Diamond, R., & Carey, S. (1986). Why faces are and are not special: An effect of expertise. Journal of Experimental Psychology, General, 115, 107-117.
21. Doyle, J. M. (2001). Discounting the error costs: Cross-racial false alarms in the culture of contemporary criminal justice. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 253-262.
22. Elliott, E. S., Wills, E. J., & Goldstein, A. G. (1973). The effects of discrimination training on the recognition of white and oriental faces. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2, 71-73.
23. Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 44, pp. 1-74). New York: Academic Press.
24. Fradella, H. F. (2006). Why judges should admit expert testimony on the unreliability of eyewitness testimony. Federal Courts Law Review, 3, 1-29.
25. Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The Common Ingroup Identity Model Philadelphia: The Psychology Press.
26. Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., & Bachman, B. A. (1996). Revisiting the contact hypothesis: The induction of a common ingroup identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 271-290.
27. Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Nier, J. A., Banker, B. S., Ward, C. M., Houlette, M., & Loux, S. (2000). The Common Ingroup Identity Model for reducing intergroup bias: Progress and challenges. In D. Capozza & R. Brown (Eds.), Social identity processes: Trends in theory in research (pp. 133-148). London: Sage.
28. Gauthier, I., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., & Anderson, A. W. (2000). Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 191-197.
29. Goldsmith, W. W., & Blakely, E. J. (2010). Separate societies: Poverty and inequality in U.S. Cities Philadelphia: Temple.
30. Goldstein, A. G., & Chance, J. E. (1985). Effects of training on Japanese face recognition: Reduction of the other-race effect. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 23, 211-214.
31. Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics New York: Wiley.
32. Hancock, K., J., & Rhodes, G. (2008). Contact, configural coding, and the other-race effect in face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 99, 45-56.
33. Hehman, E., Mania, E. W., & Gaertner, S. L. (2010). Where the division lies: Common ingroup identity moderates the cross-race facial recognition effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 445-448.
34. Hope, L., & Wright, D. (2007). Beyond unusual? Examining the role of attention in the weapon focus effect. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 951-961.
35. Hugenberg, K., Miller, J., & Claypool, H. M. (2007). Categorization and individuation in the cross-race recognition deficit: Toward a solution to an insidious problem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2007, 334-340.
36. Hugenberg, K., Young, S. G., Bernstein, M. J., & Sacco, D. F. (2010). The categorization-individuation model: An integrative account of the other-race recognition deficit. Psychological Review, 117, 1168-1187.
37. Ito, T. A., & Urland, G. R. (2003). Race and gender on the brain: Electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 616-626.
38. Jonsson, P. (2007). The police lineup is becoming suspect practice. Christian Science Monitor (Downloaded June 15, 2011, from http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0206/p01s02-usju.html).
39. Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., & Chun, M. M. (1997). The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 4302-4311.
40. Levin, D. T. (1996). Classifying faces by race: The structure of face categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 1364-1382.
41. Levin, D. T. (2000). Race as a visual feature: Using visual search and perceptual discrimination tasks to understand face categories and the cross-race recognition deficit. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129, 559-574.
42. Light, L. L., Kayra-Stuart, F., & Hollander, S. (1979). Recognition memory for typical and unusual faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, 212-228.
43. Lindsay, R. C. L. (1994).Expectations of eyewitness performance: Jurors' verdicts do not follow from their beliefs. In D. F. Ross, J. D. Read, & M. P. Toglia (Eds.), Adult eyewitness testimony: Current trends and developments (pp. 362-384). New York: Cambridge.
44. Lindsay, R. C. L., & Wells, G. L. (1985). Improving eyewitness identifications from lineups: Simultaneous versus sequential lineup presentation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 556-564.
45. Lipton, J. P. (1996). Legal aspects of eyewitness testimony. In S. L. Sporer, R. S. Malpass, & G. Koehnken (Eds.), Psychological issues in eyewitness identification (pp. 7-22). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
46. Loftus, E. F. (1974). Reconstructing memory: The incredible eyewitness. Psychology Today, 8, 116-119.
47. Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
48. Loftus, E. F., Loftus, G. R., & Messo, J. (1987). Some facts about "weapon focus. Law and Human Behavior, 11, 55-62.
49. Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 19-31.
50. MacLin, O. H., MacLin, K. M., & Malpass, R. S. (2001). Race, arousal, attention, exposure, and delay: An examination of factors moderating face recognition. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 134-152.
51. MacLin, O. H., & Malpass, R. S. (2001). Racial categorization of faces: The ambiguous race face effect. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 7, 98-118.
52. MacLin, O. H., & Malpass, R. S. (2003). The ambiguous-race face illusion. Perception, 32, 249-252.
53. Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93-120.
54. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Calvini, G. (1999). Seeing more than we can know: Visual attention and category activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 590-602.
55. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V, Milne, A. B., Thorn, T. M. J., & Castelli, L. (1997). On the activation of social stereotypes: The moderating role of processing objectives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 471-489.
56. Malpass, R. S., & Devine, P. G. (1981). Eyewitness identification: Lineup instructions and the absence of the offender. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 482-489.
57. Malpass, R. S., & Kravitz, J. (1969). Recognition for faces of own and other race. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 330-334.
58. Malpass, R. S., Lavigueur, H., & Weldon, D. E. (1973). Verbal and visual training in face recognition. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 14, 285-292.
59. Malpass, R. S., Tredoux, C. G., & McQuiston-Surrett, D. (2009). Public policy and sequential lineups. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 14, 1-12.
60. Meissner, C. A., & Brigham, J. C. (2001). Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 3-35.
61. Meissner, C. A., Tredoux, C. G., Parker, J. F., & MacLin, O. H. (2005). Eyewitness decisions in simultaneous and sequential lineups: A dual-process signal detection theory analysis. Memory and Cognition, 33, 783-792.
62. Michel, C., Rossion, B., Han, J., Chung, C., & Caldara, R. (2006). Holistic processing is finely tuned for faces of our own race. Psychological Science, 17, 608-615.
63. New Jersey v. Cromedy, 727 A.2d 456, 467 (N. J., 1999).
64. Ng, W., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (1994). Cross-race facial recognition: Failure of the contact hypothesis. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 25, 217-232.
65. O'Toole, A. J., Deffenbacher, K. A., Valentin, D., & Abdi, H. (1994). Structural aspects of face recognition and the other-race effect. Memory & Cognition, 22, 208-224.
66. Pauker, K., Weisbuch, M., Ambady, N., Sommers, S. R., Adams, R. B., & Ivcevic, Z. (2009). Not so black and white: Memory for ambiguous group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 795-810.
67. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751-783.
68. Pezdek, K., Blandon-Gitlin, I., & Moore, C. (2003). Children's face recognition memory: More evidence for the cross-race effect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 760-763.
69. Phillips, M., McAuliff, B., Kovera, M. B., & Cutler, B. L. (1999). Double-blind photoarray administration as a safeguard against investigator bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 940-951.
70. Platz, S. J., & Hosch, H. M. (1988). Cross-racial ethnic eyewitness identification: A field-study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 972-984.
71. Quinn, K. A., Mason, M. F., & Macrae, C. N. (2009). Familiarity and person construal: Individuating knowledge moderates the automaticity of category activation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 852-861.
72. Quinn, K. A., Mason, M. F., & Macrae, C. N. (2010). When Arnold is "The Terminator, "we no longer see him as a man: The temporal determinants of person perception. Experimental Psychology, 57, 27-35.
73. Rhodes, G., Brake, S., Taylor, K., & Tan, S. (1989). Expertise and configural coding in face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 80, 313-331.
74. Rhodes, G., Lie, H. C., Ewing, L., Evangelista, E., & Tanaka, J. W. (2010). Does perceived race affect discrimination and recognition of ambiguous-race faces? A test of the sociocognitive hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 217-223.
75. Rhodes, G., Locke, V., Ewing, L., & Evangelista, E. (2009). Race coding and the other-race effect in face recognition. Perception, 38, 232-241.
76. Rodin, M. J. (1987). Who is memorable to whom: A study of cognitive disregard. Social Cognition, 5, 144-165.
77. Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
78. Sangrigoli, S., & de Schonen, S. (2004). Recognition of own-race and other-race faces by three-month-old infants. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1219-1227.
79. Sangrigoli, S., Pallier, C., Argenti, A. M., Ventureyra, V. A. G., & de Schonen, S. (2005). Reversibility of the other-race effect in face recognition during childhood. Psychological Science 16, 440-444.
80. Scheck, B., Neufeld, P., & Dwyer, J. (2003). Actual innocence: When justice goes wrong and how to make it right New York: Signet.
81. Schooler, J. W., Ryan, R. S., & Reder, L. (1996). The costs and benefits of verbally rehearsing memory for faces. In D. J. Herrmann, C. McEvoy, C. Hertzog, P. Hertel, & M. K. Johnson (Eds.), Basic and applied memory research (Vol. 2, pp. 51-66). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
82. Shapiro, P. N., & Penrod, S. (1986). Meta-analysis of facial identification studies. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 139-156.
83. Shriver, E. R., & Hugenberg, K. (2010). Power, individuation, and the cross-race recognition deficit. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 767-774.
84. Shriver, E. R., Young, S. G., Hugenberg, K., Bernstein, M. J., & Lanter, J. R. (2008). Class, race, and the face: Social context modulates the cross-race effect in face recognition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 260-274.
85. Sporer, S. L. (2001). The cross-race effect: Beyond recognition of faces in the laboratory. Psychology, Public Policy, and the Law, 7, 170-200.
86. Sporer, S. L., Penrod, S., Read, D., & Cutler, B. (1995). Choosing, confidence, and accuracy: A meta-analysis of the confidence-accuracy relation in eyewitness identification studies. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 315-327.
87. Steblay, N. M. (1992). A meta-analytic review of the weapon focus effect. Law and Human Behavior, 16, 413-424.
88. Steblay, N. M. (1997). Social influences in eyewitness recall: A meta-analytic review of lineup instruction effects. Law and Human Behavior, 21, 283-297.
89. Susa, K. J., Meissner, C. A., & de Heer, H. (2010). Modeling the role of social-cognitive processes in the recognition of own- vs. other-race faces. Social Cognition, 28, 523-537.
90. Tanaka, J. W., & Pierce, L. J. (2009). The neural plasticity of other-race face recognition. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 122-131.
91. Valentine, T. (1991). A unified account of the effects of distinctiveness, inversion, and race in face recognition. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A, 43, 161-204.
92. Valentine, T., & Endo, M. (1992). Towards an exemplar model of face processing: The effects of race and distinctiveness. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 44A, 671-703.
93. Van Bavel, J. J., Packer, D. J., & Cunningham, W. A. (2011). Modulation of the Fusiform Face Area following minimal exposure to motivationally relevant faces: Evidence of in-group enhancement (not out-group disregard). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 3343-3354.
94. Wells, G. L., Lindsay, R. C., & Ferguson, T. J. (1979). Accuracy, confidence, and juror perceptions in eyewitness identification. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 440-448.
95. Wells, G. L., & Luus, C. A. E. (1990). Police lineups as experiments: Social methodology as a framework for properly conducted lineups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 106-117.
96. Wells, G. L., & Olson, E. A. (2001). The other-race effect in eyewitness identification: What do we do about it Psychology, Public Policy, and the Law, 7, 230-246.
97. Wells, G. L., & Olson, E. A. (2003). Eyewitness testimony. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 277-295.
98. Wilson, J. P., & Hugenberg, K. (2010). When under threat, we all look the same: Distinctiveness threat induces ingroup homogeneity in face memory. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 1004-1010.
99. Wogalter, M. S., Malpass, R. S., & McQuiston, D. E. (2004). A national survey of U.S. police on preparation and conduct of identification lineups. Psychology, Crime, and Law, 10, 69-82.
100. Yarmey, A. D. (1979). Psychology of eyewitness testimony New York: Free Press.
101. Young, S. G., Bernstein, M. J., & Hugenberg, K. (2010). When do own-group biases in face recognition occur? Encoding versus post-encoding. Social Cognition, 28, 240-250.
102. Young, S. G., & Hugenberg, K. (2012). Individuation motivation and face experience can operate jointly to produce the Own Race Bias. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3, 80-87.
103. Young, S. G., Hugenberg, K., Bernstein, M. J., & Sacco, D. F. (2009). Interracial contexts debilitate same-race face recognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1123-1126.
104. Young, S. G., Hugenberg, K., Bernstein, M. J., & Sacco, D. F. (2012). Perception and motivation in face recognition: A critical review of theories of the Cross Race Effect. Personality and Social Psychology Review 16, 116-142.
105. Yuille, J. C. (1993). We must study forensic eyewitnesses to know about them. American Psychologist, 48, 572-573.
106. Zaragoza, M. S., & Lane, S. M. (1998). Processing resources and eyewitness suggestibility. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 3, 305-320.