Vascular disease and dementias: Paradigm shifts to drive research in new directions

Alzheimer's and Dementia

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 76-92

  Kling, Mitchel A ^a,b   Trojanowski, John Q ^a   Wolk, David A ^a   Lee, Virginia M Y ^a   Arnold, Steven E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^b VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Cerebrovascular; Dementia; Dyslipidemia; Hypertension; Insulin resistance; Magnetic resonance imaging; Metabolic syndrome; Obesity; Pathophysiology; Risk factors; Vascular; White matter hyperintensities

Indexed keywords

AGING; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DEMENTIA; DEPRESSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DYSLIPIDEMIA; FUNDING; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LEWY BODY; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLE; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OBESITY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SENILE PLAQUE; SMOKING; SYSTEMIC DISEASE; SYSTEMS BIOLOGY; TAXONOMY; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY; VASCULAR DISEASE; WHITE MATTER LESION;

CEREBROVASCULAR DISORDERS; DEMENTIA; HUMANS;

EID: 84872100720     PISSN: 15525260     EISSN: 15525279     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2012.02.007     Document Type: Review

References (174)

1. K. Christensen, G. Doblhammer, R. Rau, and J.W. Vaupel Ageing populations: the challenges ahead Lancet 374 2009 1196 1208
2. S.J. Olshansky, and A.B. Ault The fourth stage of the epidemiologic transition: the age of delayed degenerative diseases Milbank Q 64 1986 355 391
3. A. Wimo, B. Winblad, and L. Jonsson The worldwide societal costs of dementia: estimates for 2009 Alzheimers Dement 6 2010 98 103
4. K.A. Jellinger The enigma of vascular cognitive disorder and vascular dementia Acta Neuropathol 113 2007 349 388
5. M. Cavalieri, C. Enzinger, K. Petrovic, A. Pluta-Fuerst, N. Homayoon, and H. Schmidt Vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease - are we in a dead-end road? Neurodegener Dis 7 2010 122 126
6. H. Forstl, R. Howard, and R. Levy Binswanger's clinical and neuropathological criteria for "Binswanger's disease" J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 54 1991 1122 1123
7. D.J. Libon, C.C. Price, R.A. Swenson, D. Penney, B. Haake, and A. Pennisi Vascular cognitive impairment J.R. Festa, R.M. Lazar, Neurovascular Neuropsychology 2009 Springer Science, Business Media New York 75 86
8. G.C. Roman A historical review of the concept of vascular dementia: lessons from the past for the future Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 13 Suppl 3 1999 S4 S8
9. G.C. Roman Historical evolution of the concept of vascular dementia J.V. Bowler, V. Hachinski, Vascular Cognitive Impairment: Preventable Dementia 2003 Oxford University Press New York, NY 12 20
10. W.H. McMenemey The dementias and progressive diseases of the basal ganglia J.G. GreenWeld, Neuropathology 3rd ed. 1961 E. Arnold London 475 521
11. J.P. Blass, S. Hoyer, and R. Nitsch A translation of Otto Binswanger's article, "The delineation of the generalized progressive paralyses." 1894 Arch Neurol 48 1991 961 972
12. J.J. Hauw The history of lacunes G.A. Donnan, J.M. Norrving, J.M. Bamford, J. Bogousslavsky, Lacunar and Other Subcortical Infarctions 1995 Oxford University Press New York, NY 3 15
13. A. Alzheimer, R.A. Stelzmann, H.N. Schnitzlein, and F.R. Murtagh An english translation of Alzheimer's 1907 paper, "Uber eine eigenartige Erkankung der Hirnrinde" Clin Anat 8 1995 429 431
14. B.E. Tomlinson, G. Blessed, and M. Roth Observations on the brains of non-demented old people J Neurol Sci 7 1968 331 356
15. B.E. Tomlinson, G. Blessed, and M. Roth Observations on the brains of demented old people J Neurol Sci 11 1970 205 242
16. P. Davies, and A.J. Maloney Selective loss of central cholinergic neurons in Alzheimer's disease Lancet 2 1976 1403
17. W.K. Summers, L.V. Majovski, G.M. Marsh, K. Tachiki, and A. Kling Oral tetrahydroaminoacridine in long-term treatment of senile dementia, Alzheimer type N Engl J Med 315 1986 1241 1245
18. K.L. Lanctôt, N. Herrmann, K.K. Yau, L.R. Khan, B.A. Liu, and M.M. LouLou Efficacy and safety of cholinesterase inhibitors in Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis CMAJ 169 2003 557 564
19. J.A. Hardy, and G.A. Higgins Alzheimer's disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis Science 256 1992 184 185
20. K.S. Kosik Tau protein and Alzheimer's disease Curr Opin Cell Biol 2 1990 101 104
21. J.Q. Trojanowski, M.L. Schmidt, R.W. Shin, G.T. Bramblett, D. Rao, and V.M. Lee Altered tau and neurofilament proteins in neuro-degenerative diseases: diagnostic implications for Alzheimer's disease and Lewy body dementias Brain Pathol 3 1993 45 54
22. A. Lleo, S.M. Greenberg, and J.H. Growdon Current pharmacotherapy for Alzheimer's disease Annu Rev Med 57 2006 513 533
23. D.J. Selkoe Amyloid beta protein precursor and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease Cell 58 1989 611 612
24. M.S. Rafii, and P.S. Aisen Recent developments in Alzheimer's disease therapeutics BMC Med 7 2009 7
25. M. Ganguli Epidemiology of dementia M.T. Abou-Saleh, C.K. Katona, A. Kumar, Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry 3rd ed. 2011 Wiley-Blackwell New York, NY 207 212
26. G.C. Roman Vascular dementia may be the most common form of dementia in the elderly J Neurol Sci 203-204 2002 7 10
27. American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental diseases, version III 3rd ed. 1980 American Psychiatric Association Washington, DC
28. H.C. Chui, J.I. Victoroff, D. Margolin, W. Jagust, R. Shankle, and R. Katzman Criteria for the diagnosis of ischemic vascular dementia proposed by the State of California Alzheimer's Disease Diagnostic and Treatment Centers Neurology 42 1992 473 480
29. World Health Organization The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines 10th ed. 1992 World Health Organization Geneva, Switzerland
30. G.C. Roman, T.K. Tatemichi, T. Erkinjuntti, J.L. Cummings, J.C. Masdeu, and J.H. Garcia Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN International Workshop Neurology 43 1993 250 260
31. American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 4th ed. 1994 American Psychiatric Press Washington, DC
32. American Psychiatric Association APA DSM-V 2011 American Psychiatric Association Washington, DC Cited May 29, 2011. Available at: http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/Default.aspx
33. S. Wiederkehr, M. Simard, C. Fortin, and R. van Reekum Comparability of the clinical diagnostic criteria for vascular dementia: a critical review: part I J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 20 2008 150 161
34. S. Wiederkehr, M. Simard, C. Fortin, and R. van Reekum Validity of the clinical diagnostic criteria for vascular dementia: a critical review: part II J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 20 2008 162 177
35. C. Wentzel, S. Darvesh, C. MacKnight, C. Shea, and K. Rockwood Inter-rater reliability of the diagnosis of vascular cognitive impairment at a memory clinic Neuroepidemiology 19 2000 186 193
36. H.C. Chui, W. Mack, J.E. Jackson, D. Mungas, B.R. Reed, and J. Tinklenberg Clinical criteria for the diagnosis of vascular dementia: a multicenter study of comparability and interrater reliability Arch Neurol 57 2000 191 196
37. T. Pohjasvaara, R. Mantyla, R. Ylikoski, M. Kaste, and T. Erkinjuntti Comparison of different clinical criteria (DSM-III, ADDTC, ICD-10, NINDS-AIREN, DSM-IV) for the diagnosis of vascular dementia. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke-Association Internationale pour la Recherche et l'Enseignement en Neurosciences Stroke 31 2000 2952 2957
38. M. Lamar, C.C. Price, T. Giovannetti, R. Swenson, and D.J. Libon The dysexecutive syndrome associated with ischaemic vascular disease and related subcortical neuropathology: a Boston process approach Behav Neurol 22 2009 53 62
39. V. Hachinski, C. Iadecola, R.C. Petersen, M.M. Breteler, D.L. Nyenhuis, and S.E. Black National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke-Canadian Stroke Network vascular cognitive impairment harmonization standards Stroke 37 2006 2220 2241
40. R.C. Petersen Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity J Intern Med 256 2004 183 194
41. R.O. Roberts, Y.E. Geda, D.S. Knopman, R.H. Cha, B.F. Boeve, and R.J. Ivnik Metabolic syndrome, inflammation, and nonamnestic mild cognitive impairment in older persons: a population-based study Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 24 2010 11 18
42. R.O. Roberts, D.S. Knopman, Y.E. Geda, R.H. Cha, V.L. Roger, and R.C. Petersen Coronary heart disease is associated with non-amnestic mild cognitive impairment Neurobiol Aging 31 2010 1894 1902
43. D.I. Trachtenberg, and J.Q. Trojanowski Dementia: a word to be forgotten Arch Neurol 65 2008 593 595
44. J.T. O'Brien, T. Erkinjuntti, B. Reisberg, G. Roman, T. Sawada, and L. Pantoni Vascular cognitive impairment Lancet Neurol 2 2003 89 98
45. S.E. Black Vascular cognitive impairment: epidemiology, subtypes, diagnosis and management J R Coll Physicians Edinb 41 2011 49 56
46. J.T. O'Brien Vascular cognitive impairment Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 14 2006 724 733
47. L. Pantoni, and P. Gorelick Advances in vascular cognitive impairment 2010 Stroke 42 2011 291 293
48. K. Rockwood, S.E. Black, X. Song, D.B. Hogan, S. Gauthier, and C. MacKnight Clinical and radiographic subtypes of vascular cognitive impairment in a clinic-based cohort study J Neurol Sci 240 2006 7 14
49. V.C. Hachinski, P. Potter, and H. Merskey Leukoaraiosis Arch Neurol 44 1987 21 23
50. P. Malloy, S. Correia, G. Stebbins, and D.H. Laidlaw Neuroimaging of white matter in aging and dementia Clin Neuropsychol 21 2007 73 109
51. F.E. de Leeuw, J.C. de Groot, E. Achten, M. Oudkerk, L.M. Ramos, and R. Heijboer Prevalence of cerebral white matter lesions in elderly people: a population based magnetic resonance imaging study. The Rotterdam Scan Study J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 70 2001 9 14
52. R. Barber, P. Scheltens, A. Gholkar, C. Ballard, I. McKeith, and P. Ince White matter lesions on magnetic resonance imaging in dementia with Lewy bodies, Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and normal aging J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67 1999 66 72
53. M.M. Breteler, J.C. van Swieten, M.L. Bots, D.E. Grobbee, J.J. Claus, and J.H. van den Hout Cerebral white matter lesions, vascular risk factors, and cognitive function in a population-based study: the Rotterdam Study Neurology 44 1994 1246 1252
54. J. Beyer, R. Young, M. Kuchibhatla, and K.R. Krishnan Hyperintense MRI lesions in bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis and review Int Rev Psychiatry 21 2009 394 409
55. A. Porter, J. Gladstone, and D. Dodick Migraine and white matter hyperintensities Curr Pain Headache Rep 9 2005 289 293
56. ADC Neuropathology Core Leaders' Steering Committee. NACC Neuropathology (NP) Diagnosis Coding Guidebook. St. Louis, MO: National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center; 2008. Portable Document Format; Updated 2008; Cited August 4, 2011; 9.1: Coding guideline for neuropathologic diagnosis, Alzheimer's Disease Centers. Available at: https://http://www.alz.washington.edu/NONMEMBER/ NP/npguide9.pdf.
57. K.A. Jellinger, and J. Attems Is there pure vascular dementia in old age? J Neurol Sci 299 2010 150 154
58. A. Lim, D. Tsuang, W. Kukull, D. Nochlin, J. Leverenz, and W. McCormick Clinico-neuropathological correlation of Alzheimer's disease in a community-based case series J Am Geriatr Soc 47 1999 564 569
59. F.E. Matthews, C. Brayne, J. Lowe, I. McKeith, S.B. Wharton, and P. Ince Epidemiological pathology of dementia: attributable-risks at death in the Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study PLoS Med 6 2009 e1000180
60. J.A. Schneider, Z. Arvanitakis, W. Bang, and D.A. Bennett Mixed brain pathologies account for most dementia cases in community-dwelling older persons Neurology 69 2007 2197 2204
61. J.A. Schneider, Z. Arvanitakis, S.E. Leurgans, and D.A. Bennett The neuropathology of probable Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment Ann Neurol 66 2009 200 208
62. S.B. Wharton, C. Brayne, G.M. Savva, F.E. Matthews, G. Forster, and J. Simpson Epidemiological neuropathology: the MRC Cognitive Function and Aging study experience J Alzheimers Dis 25 2011 359 372
63. L. White, H. Petrovitch, J. Hardman, J. Nelson, D.G. Davis, and G.W. Ross Cerebrovascular pathology and dementia in autopsied Honolulu-Asia Aging Study participants Ann NY Acad Sci 977 2002 9 23
64. H. Dolan, B. Crain, J. Troncoso, S.M. Resnick, A.B. Zonderman, and R.J. Obrien Atherosclerosis, dementia, and Alzheimer disease in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging cohort Ann Neurol 68 2010 231 240
65. J.A. Sonnen, E.B. Larson, S. Haneuse, R. Woltjer, G. Li, and P.K. Crane Neuropathology in the adult changes in thought study: a review J Alzheimers Dis 18 2009 703 711
66. D. Strozyk, D.W. Dickson, R.B. Lipton, M. Katz, C.A. Derby, and S. Lee Contribution of vascular pathology to the clinical expression of dementia Neurobiol Aging 31 2010 1710 1720
67. L.J. Launer, H. Petrovitch, G.W. Ross, W. Markesbery, and L.R. White AD brain pathology: vascular origins? Results from the HAAS autopsy study Neurobiol Aging 29 2008 1587 1590
68. R.J. Nudo Neural bases of recovery after brain injury J Commun Disord 44 2011 515 520
69. B. Winner, Z. Kohl, and F.H. Gage Neurodegenerative disease and adult neurogenesis Eur J Neurosci 33 2011 1139 1151
70. N. Dancause, and R.J. Nudo Shaping plasticity to enhance recovery after injury Prog Brain Res 192 2011 273 295
71. S. Negash, D.A. Bennett, R.S. Wilson, J.A. Schneider, and S.E. Arnold Cognition and neuropathology in aging: multidimensional perspectives from the Rush Religious Orders Study and Rush Memory and Aging Project Curr Alzheimer Res 8 2011 336 340
72. Montine TJ, Hyman BT, Beach TG, Bigio EH, Cairns NJ, Dickson D, et al. National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association guidelines for the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer's disease [draft document for public comment], 2011; Cited August 14, 2011. Available at: http://www.alz.org/ research/diagnostic-criteria/.
73. J.E. Eichner, S.T. Dunn, G. Perveen, D.M. Thompson, K.E. Stewart, and B.C. Stroehla Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and cardiovascular disease: a HuGE review Am J Epidemiol 155 2002 487 495
74. J.W. Williams, B.L. Plassman, J. Burke, T. Holsinger, and S. Benjamin Preventing Alzheimer's disease and cognitive decline. Evidence report/technology assessment 2010 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Rockville, MD Report No: 193 Contract No.: Publication No. 10-E005
75. National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report Circulation 106 2002 3143 3421
76. N. Unwin The metabolic syndrome J R Soc Med 99 2006 457 462
77. G.M. Reaven The metabolic syndrome: time to get off the merry-go-round? J Intern Med 269 2011 127 136
78. E. Kassi, P. Pervanidou, G. Kaltsas, and G. Chrousos Metabolic syndrome: definitions and controversies BMC Med 9 2011 48
79. W.B. Kannel, T.R. Dawber, A. Kagan, N. Revotskie, and J. Stokes III Factors of risk in the development of coronary heart disease-six year follow-up experience. The Framingham Study Ann Intern Med 55 1961 33 50
80. P. Libby, and P.M. Ridker Risk markers for atherothrombotic disease R.O. Bonow, D.L. Mann, D.P. Zipes, P. Libby, Braunwald's Heart Disease - A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine [online version] 9th ed. 2011 Elsevier Saunders Philadelphia, PA 914 934
81. D. Leys, H. Henon, M.A. Mackowiak-Cordoliani, and F. Pasquier Poststroke dementia Lancet Neurol 4 2005 752 759
82. V.C. Hachinski, N.A. Lassen, and J. Marshall Multi-infarct dementia. A cause of mental deterioration in the elderly Lancet 2 1974 207 210
83. Z. Arvanitakis, S.E. Leurgans, L.L. Barnes, D.A. Bennett, and J.A. Schneider Microinfarct pathology, dementia, and cognitive systems Stroke 42 2011 722 727
84. D.J. Werring, S.M. Gregoire, and L. Cipolotti Cerebral microbleeds and vascular cognitive impairment J Neurol Sci 299 2010 131 135
85. A.A. Gouw, A. Seewann, W.M. van der Flier, F. Barkhof, A.M. Rozemuller, and P. Scheltens Heterogeneity of small vessel disease: a systematic review of MRI and histopathology correlations J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 82 2011 126 135
86. C.M. Lawes, D.A. Bennett, V.L. Feigin, and A. Rodgers Blood pressure and stroke: an overview of published reviews Stroke 35 2004 776 785
87. M. Nagai, S. Hoshide, and K. Kario Hypertension and dementia Am J Hypertens 23 2010 116 124
88. P. Arora, and C. Newton-Cheh Blood pressure and human genetic variation in the general population Curr Opin Cardiol 25 2010 229 237
89. A.V. Chobanian, G.L. Bakris, H.R. Black, W.C. Cushman, L.A. Green, and J.L. Izzo Jr. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure Hypertension 42 2003 1206 1252
90. M.W. Strachan, R.M. Reynolds, R.E. Marioni, and J.F. Price Cognitive function, dementia and type 2 diabetes mellitus in the elderly Nat Rev Endocrinol 7 2011 108 114
91. S. Wild, G. Roglic, A. Green, R. Sicree, and H. King Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030 Diabetes Care 27 2004 1047 1053
92. J.P. Crandall, W.C. Knowler, S.E. Kahn, D. Marrero, J.C. Florez, and G.A. Bray The prevention of type 2 diabetes Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 4 2008 382 393
93. W.W. Nichols, and M.F. O'Rourke McDonald's blood flow in arteries: theoretical, experimental and clinical principles 2005 Oxford University Press Oxford
94. M.F. O'Rourke, and M.E. Safar Relationship between aortic stiffening and microvascular disease in brain and kidney: cause and logic of therapy Hypertension 46 2005 200 204
95. H.Y. Lee, and B.H. Oh Aging and arterial stiffness Circ J 74 2010 2257 2262
96. P. Libby The vascular biology of atherosclerosis R.O. Bonow, D.L. Mann, D.P. Zipes, P. Libby, Braunwald's Heart Disease - A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine [online version] 9th ed. 2011 Elsevier Saunders Philadelphia, PA 897 913
97. D.C. Lau Metabolic syndrome: perception or reality? Curr Atheroscler Rep 11 2009 264 271
98. I. Ferrer Cognitive impairment of vascular origin: neuropathology of cognitive impairment of vascular origin J Neurol Sci 299 2010 139 149
99. F. Panza, V. Frisardi, C. Capurso, B.P. Imbimbo, G. Vendemiale, and A. Santamato Metabolic syndrome and cognitive impairment: current epidemiology and possible underlying mechanisms J Alzheimers Dis 21 2010 691 724
100. S.R. Preis, J.M. Massaro, S.J. Robins, U. Hoffmann, R.S. Vasan, and T. Irlbeck Abdominal subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue and insulin resistance in the Framingham heart study Obesity (Silver Spring) 18 2010 2191 2198
101. S. Yamashita, T. Nakamura, I. Shimomura, M. Nishida, S. Yoshida, and K. Kotani Insulin resistance and body fat distribution Diabetes Care 19 1996 287 291
102. G.M. Reaven The metabolic syndrome: is this diagnosis necessary? Am J Clin Nutr 83 2006 1237 1247
103. G.M. Reaven Compensatory hyperinsulinemia and the development of an atherogenic lipoprotein profile: the price paid to maintain glucose homeostasis in insulin-resistant individuals Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 34 2005 49 62
104. M.F. Gregor, and G.S. Hotamisligil Inflammatory mechanisms in obesity Annu Rev Immunol 29 2011 415 445
105. V. Kotsis, S. Stabouli, S. Papakatsika, Z. Rizos, and G. Parati Mechanisms of obesity-induced hypertension Hypertens Res 33 2010 386 393
106. B.L. Wajchenberg Subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue: their relation to the metabolic syndrome Endocr Rev 21 2000 697 738
107. M. Alvehus, J. Buren, M. Sjostrom, J. Goedecke, and T. Olsson The human visceral fat depot has a unique inflammatory profile Obesity (Silver Spring) 18 2010 879 883
108. R.W. O'Rourke, M.D. Metcalf, A.E. White, A. Madala, B.R. Winters, and Maizlin II Depot-specific differences in inflammatory mediators and a role for NK cells and IFN-gamma in inflammation in human adipose tissue Int J Obes (Lond) 33 2009 978 990
109. R. Cancello, and K. Clement Is obesity an inflammatory illness? Role of low-grade inflammation and macrophage infiltration in human white adipose tissue BJOG 113 2006 1141 1147
110. E.E. Kershaw, and J.S. Flier Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89 2004 2548 2556
111. J.P. Despres Is visceral obesity the cause of the metabolic syndrome? Ann Med 38 2006 52 63
112. E.J. Gallagher, D. Leroith, and E. Karnieli Insulin resistance in obesity as the underlying cause for the metabolic syndrome Mt Sinai J Med 77 2010 511 523
113. M.U. Jakobsen, T. Berentzen, T.I. Sorensen, and K. Overvad Abdominal obesity and fatty liver Epidemiol Rev 29 2007 77 87
114. E. Fabbrini, R.A. Tamboli, F. Magkos, P.A. Marks-Shulman, A.W. Eckhauser, and W.O. Richards Surgical removal of omental fat does not improve insulin sensitivity and cardiovascular risk factors in obese adults Gastroenterology 139 2010 448 455
115. Talbot K, Wang HY, Kazi H, Han LY, Bakshi KP, Stucky A, et al. Brain insulin resistance demonstrated in Alzheimer's disease without diabetes is associated with dysregulated IRS-1 and cognitive decline. J Clin Invest (in press).
116. Y. Liu, F. Liu, I. Grundke-Iqbal, K. Iqbal, and C.X. Gong Deficient brain insulin signalling pathway in Alzheimer's disease and diabetes J Pathol 225 2011 54 62
117. W.B. Kannel, T.R. Dawber, G.D. Friedman, W.E. Glennon, and P.M. McNamara Risk factors in coronary heart disease. An Evaluation of Several Serum Lipids as Predictors of Coronary Heart Disease; the Framingham Study Ann Intern Med 61 1964 888 899
118. C. Baigent, A. Keech, P.M. Kearney, L. Blackwell, G. Buck, and C. Pollicino Efficacy and safety of cholesterol-lowering treatment: prospective meta-analysis of data from 90,056 participants in 14 randomised trials of statins Lancet 366 2005 1267 1278
119. F. Abbasi, B.W. Brown Jr., C. Lamendola, T. McLaughlin, and G.M. Reaven Relationship between obesity, insulin resistance, and coronary heart disease risk J Am Coll Cardiol 40 2002 937 943
120. M.J. Pencina, RB Sr D'Agostino, M.G. Larson, J.M. Massaro, and R.S. Vasan Predicting the 30-year risk of cardiovascular disease: the framingham heart study Circulation 119 2009 3078 3084
121. A.V. Khera, M. Cuchel, M. de la Llera-Moya, A. Rodrigues, M.F. Burke, and K. Jafri Cholesterol efflux capacity, high-density lipoprotein function, and atherosclerosis N Engl J Med 364 2011 127 135
122. M. Cuchel, and D.J. Rader Macrophage reverse cholesterol transport: key to the regression of atherosclerosis? Circulation 113 2006 2548 2555
123. J.A. Farmer, and J. Liao Evolving concepts of the role of high-density lipoprotein in protection from atherosclerosis Curr Atheroscler Rep 13 2011 107 114
124. M. Navab, S.T. Reddy, B.J. Van Lenten, and A.M. Fogelman HDL and cardiovascular disease: atherogenic and atheroprotective mechanisms Nat Rev Cardiol 8 2011 222 232
125. E.M. Degoma, and D.J. Rader Novel HDL-directed pharmacotherapeutic strategies Nat Rev Cardiol 8 2011 266 277
126. P.P. Toth Pharmacomodulation of high-density lipoprotein metabolism as a therapeutic intervention for atherosclerotic disease Curr Cardiol Rep 12 2010 481 487
127. C. Reitz, M.X. Tang, N. Schupf, J.J. Manly, R. Mayeux, and J.A. Luchsinger Association of higher levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in elderly individuals and lower risk of late-onset Alzheimer disease Arch Neurol 67 2010 1491 1497
128. G.T. Lesser, V. Haroutunian, D.P. Purohit, M. Schnaider Beeri, J. Schmeidler, and L. Honkanen Serum lipids are related to Alzheimer's pathology in nursing home residents Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 27 2009 42 49
129. K. Eder, N. Baffy, A. Falus, and A.K. Fulop The major inflammatory mediator interleukin-6 and obesity Inflamm Res 58 2009 727 736
130. C. Espinola-Klein, T. Gori, S. Blankenberg, and T. Munzel Inflammatory markers and cardiovascular risk in the metabolic syndrome Front Biosci 16 2011 1663 1674
131. A.N. Vgontzas, E.O. Bixler, and G.P. Chrousos Metabolic disturbances in obesity versus sleep apnoea: the importance of visceral obesity and insulin resistance J Intern Med 254 2003 32 44
132. V. Mohamed-Ali, S. Goodrick, A. Rawesh, D.R. Katz, J.M. Miles, and J.S. Yudkin Subcutaneous adipose tissue releases interleukin-6, but not tumor necrosis factor-alpha, in vivo J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82 1997 4196 4200
133. L.K. Phillips, and J.B. Prins The link between abdominal obesity and the metabolic syndrome Curr Hypertens Rep 10 2008 156 164
134. S. Mehta, and J.A. Farmer Obesity and inflammation: a new look at an old problem Curr Atheroscler Rep 9 2007 134 138
135. C.M. Elks, and J. Francis Central adiposity, systemic inflammation, and the metabolic syndrome Curr Hypertens Rep 12 2010 99 104
136. G.S. Hotamisligil Inflammation and metabolic disorders Nature 444 2006 860 867
137. J.I. Borissoff, H.M. Spronk, and H. ten Cate The hemostatic system as a modulator of atherosclerosis N Engl J Med 364 2011 1746 1760
138. B.A. Konkle Chapter 59: Bleeding and thrombosis A.S. Fauci, E. Braunwald, D.L. Kasper, S.L. Hauser, D.L. Longo, J.L. Jameson, Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 17 ed. 2011 Cited 2011. Available at: http://www. accessmedicine.com/content.aspx?aID=2870098
139. P. Libby, P.M. Ridker, and G.K. Hansson Progress and challenges in translating the biology of atherosclerosis Nature 473 2011 317 325
140. J.I. Weitz Hemostasis, Thrombosis, fibrinolysis, and cardiovascular disease R.O. Bonow, D.L. Mann, D.P. Zipes, P. Libby, Braunwald's Heart Disease - A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine [online version] 9th ed. 2011 Elsevier Saunders Philadelphia, PA 1844 1867
141. G. Davi, and C. Patrono Platelet activation and atherothrombosis N Engl J Med 357 2007 2482 2494
142. M. Gawaz, H. Langer, and A.E. May Platelets in inflammation and atherogenesis J Clin Invest 115 2005 3378 3384
143. M.C. Alessi, and I. Juhan-Vague Metabolic syndrome, haemostasis and thrombosis Thromb Haemost 99 2008 995 1000
144. I. Palomo, R. Moore-Carrasco, M. Alarcon, A. Rojas, F. Espana, and V. Andres Pathophysiology of the proatherothrombotic state in the metabolic syndrome Front Biosci (Schol Ed) 2 2010 194 208
145. P.G. Steg, S.H. Dorman, and P. Amarenco Atherothrombosis and the role of antiplatelet therapy J Thromb Haemost 9 Suppl 1 2011 325 332
146. D.J. Stott, M. Robertson, A. Rumley, P. Welsh, N. Sattar, and C.J. Packard Activation of hemostasis and decline in cognitive function in older people Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 30 2010 605 611
147. J. Gallacher, A. Bayer, G. Lowe, M. Fish, J. Pickering, and S. Pedro Is sticky blood bad for the brain?: Hemostatic and inflammatory systems and dementia in the Caerphilly Prospective Study Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 30 2010 599 604
148. R. Altman, and J.C. Rutledge The vascular contribution to Alzheimer's disease Clin Sci (Lond) 119 2010 407 421
149. L.T. Grinberg, and D.R. Thal Vascular pathology in the aged human brain Acta Neuropathol 119 2010 277 290
150. T. Revesz, J.L. Holton, T. Lashley, G. Plant, B. Frangione, and A. Rostagno Genetics and molecular pathogenesis of sporadic and hereditary cerebral amyloid angiopathies Acta Neuropathol 118 2009 115 130
151. J. Attems, K. Jellinger, D.R. Thal, and W. Van Nostrand Review: sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 37 2011 75 93
152. A. Biffi, and S.M. Greenberg Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: a systematic review J Clin Neurol 7 2011 1 9
153. P.J. Magistretti, L. Pellerin, and J.L. Martin Brain energy metabolism: an integrated cellular perspective F.E. Bloom, D.J. Kupfer, Psychopharmacology- 4th Generation of Progress 2000 American College of Neuropsychopharmacollgy Brentwood, TN Cited 2000. Available at: http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000064/ Default.htm
154. H.L. Fehm, W. Kern, and A. Peters The selfish brain: competition for energy resources Prog Brain Res 153 2006 129 140
155. Pase MP, Herbert A, Grima NA, Pipingas A, O'Rourke MF. Arterial stiffness as a cause of cognitive decline and dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intern Med J (in press).
156. C. Lecrux, and E. Hamel The neurovascular unit in brain function and disease Acta Physiol (Oxf) 203 2011 47 59
157. Z.S. Khachaturian Calcium hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease and brain aging Ann NY Acad Sci 747 1994 1 11
158. D. Riascos, D. de Leon, A. Baker-Nigh, A. Nicholas, R. Yukhananov, and J. Bu Age-related loss of calcium buffering and selective neuronal vulnerability in Alzheimer's disease Acta Neuropathol 122 2011 565 576
159. R.D. Bell, and B.V. Zlokovic Neurovascular mechanisms and blood-brain barrier disorder in Alzheimer's disease Acta Neuropathol 118 2009 103 113
160. G.C. Brown, and J.J. Neher Inflammatory neurodegeneration and mechanisms of microglial killing of neurons Mol Neurobiol 41 2010 242 247
161. P. Grammas, D. Tripathy, A. Sanchez, X. Yin, and J. Luo Brain microvasculature and hypoxia-related proteins in Alzheimer's disease Int J Clin Exp Pathol 4 2011 616 627
162. W.R. Brown, and C.R. Thore Review: cerebral microvascular pathology in aging and neurodegeneration Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 37 2011 56 74
163. C. Iadecola The overlap between neurodegenerative and vascular factors in the pathogenesis of dementia Acta Neuropathol 120 2010 287 296
164. M.A. Moskowitz, E.H. Lo, and C. Iadecola The science of stroke: mechanisms in search of treatments Neuron 67 2010 181 198
165. O.O. Ogunshola, and X. Antoniou Contribution of hypoxia to Alzheimer's disease: is HIF-1alpha a mediator of neurodegeneration? Cell Mol Life Sci 66 2009 3555 3563
166. V.T. Marchesi Alzheimer's dementia begins as a disease of small blood vessels, damaged by oxidative-induced inflammation and dysregulated amyloid metabolism: implications for early detection and therapy FASEB J 25 2011 5 13
167. G.J. del Zoppo The neurovascular unit, matrix proteases, and innate inflammation Ann NY Acad Sci 1207 2010 46 49
168. P.B. Gorelick, A. Scuteri, S.E. Black, C. Decarli, S.M. Greenberg, and C. Iadecola Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American heart association/American stroke association Stroke 42 2011 2672 2713
169. Institute of Medicine Crossing the Quality Chasm: a new health system for the 21st century 2001 Institute of Medicine of the U.S. National Academy of Science Washington, DC
170. J. Avorn, and M. Fischer "Bench to behavior": translating comparative effectiveness research into improved clinical practice Health Aff (Millwood) 29 2010 1891 1900
171. D.E. Barnes, and K. Yaffe The projected effect of risk factor reduction on Alzheimer's disease prevalence Lancet Neurol 10 2011 819 828
172. G. Thornicroft, H. Lempp, and M. Tansella The place of implementation science in the translational medicine continuum Psychol Med 41 2011 2015 2021
173. A.L. Barabasi, N. Gulbahce, and J. Loscalzo Network medicine: a network-based approach to human disease Nat Rev Genet 12 2011 56 68
174. R.P. Juster, B.S. McEwen, and S.J. Lupien Allostatic load biomarkers of chronic stress and impact on health and cognition Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35 2010 2 16