Immigration enforcement and the fugitive slave acts: Exploring their similarities

Catholic University Law Review

Volumn 61, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 921-953

  McKanders, Karla Mari ^a  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84871592787     PISSN: 00088390     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (185)

1. Compare S.B. 1070, 2010 Ariz. Sess. Laws 450
2. codified in scattered sections of ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. (2011)
3. WHB56, 2011 Ala. Acts 535, with 8 U.S.C. § 1357(g) (2006).
4. United States v. Alabama, 813 F. Supp. 2d 1282 (N.D. Ala. 2011)
5. affd in part, rev 'd in part, and dismissed in part, 691 F.3d 1269 (11th Cir. 2012);
6. United States v. Arizona, 703 F. Supp. 2d 980 (D. Ariz. 2010)
7. affd, 641 F.3d 339 (9th Cir. 2011)
8. affd in part, rev'dinpart, and remanded, 132 S. Ct. 2492 (2012).
9. See, e.g., Anil Kalhan, Immigration Enforcement and Federalism After September 11, 2001, in Immigration, Integration, and Security: Europe and America in Comparative PERSPECTIVE 181-82 (Ariane Chebel d'Appolonia & Simon Reich eds., 2008), available at http://works.bepress.eom/anil-kalhan/3;
10. Michael A. Olivas, Immigration-Related State and Local Ordinances: Preemption, Prejudice, and the Proper Role for Enforcement, 2007 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 27, 53 (2007);
11. Huyen Pham, The Constitutional Right Not to Cooperate? Local Sovereignty and the Federal Immigration Power, 74 U. ClN. L. REV. 1373, 1376-77, 1391-95 (2006);
12. Cristina M. Rodriguez, The Significance of the Local in Immigration Regulation, 106 MICH. L. REV. 567, 620-28 (2008);
13. Tiffany Walters Kleinert, Comment, Local and State Enforcement of Immigration Law: An Equal Protection Analysis, 55 DEPAULL.REV. 1103, 1106-10(2006).
14. But see Paul Finkelman, Fugitive Slaves, Midwestern Racial Tolerance, and the Value of "Justice Delayed", 78 IOWA L. REV. 89, 99 (1992) (discussing the difficulties in drawing too close a historical parallel between immigration and the Fugitive Slave Acts, but noting that "[returning to slavery meant breaking up families, depriving mortgage holders of full payment, and destroying the continuity and harmony of a community.");
15. see also Craig B. Mousin, A Clear View from the Prairie: Harold Washington and the People of Illinois Respond to Federal Encroachment of Human Rights, 29 S. III. U. L.J. 285, 287-88 (2005) (examining how "Chicago precedent of prohibiting local police from cooperating with federal officials in enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 . . . provide[s] insight into city government's role, if any, when Congress requires local law enforcement to control movement of people.").
16. Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 41 U.S. (16 Pet.) 539, 625-26 (1842).
17. Gerald L. Neuman, The Lost Century of American Immigration Law, (1776-1875), 93 COLUM. L. REV. 1833, 1834 (1993) (examining the states' early role in regulating immigration). Neuman also encouraged others to explore regulation of immigration preceding 1875.
18. Kerry Abrams, The Hidden Dimension of Nineteenth-Century Immigration Law, 6 Vand. L. REV. 1353, 1355 (2009) [hereinafter Abrams, Hidden Dimension] (arguing that conceptualizations of pre-1875 immigration law should be expanded to include intra-state and state-to-territory migration);
19. Kerry Abrams, Polygamy, Prostitution, and the Federalization of Immigration Law, 105 COLUM. L. REV. 641, 645-647 (2005) [hereinafter Abrams, Polygamy] (arguing for the inclusion of the 1875 Page Law in understanding immigration federalism).
20. See Paul Finkelman, John McLean: Moderate Abolitionist and Supreme Court Politician, 62 VAND. L. REV. 519, 543 (2009) [hereinafter Finkelman, John McLean];
21. see also Paul Finkelman, Sorting Out Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 24 RUTGERS L.J. 605, 621 (1993) [hereinafter Finkelman, Prigg];
22. Paul Finkelman, The Kidnapping of John Davis and the Adoption of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793, 56 J. S. HIST. 397, 397 (1990);
23. Robert J. Kaczorowski, The Supreme Court and Congress's Power to Enforce Constitutional Rights: An Overlooked Moral Anomaly, 73 FORDHAM L. Rev. 153, 157 (2004) [hereinafter Kaczorowski, Moral Anomaly] ("[S]cholarly studies of the Fugitive Slave Clause and the Fugitive Slave Acts have focused on the ways this area of federal law was antithetical to the constitutional liberties of the tragic individuals it assisted slave owners to return to slavery.");
24. Robert J. Kaczorowski, The Tragic Irony of American Federalism: National Sovereignty Versus State Sovereignty in Slavery and in Freedom, 45 U. Kan. L. R V. 1015, 1023-25 (1997) [hereinafter Kaczorowski, The Tragic Irony] (collecting important full-length legal histories on fugitive slave laws at 1027 n.57);
25. Anthony J. Sebok, Judging the Fugitive Slave Acts, 100 YALE L.J. 1835,1835-36 (1991).
26. Daniel Kanstroom, Deportation Nation: Outsiders in American History 81 (2010);
27. Roberto Lovato, Juan Crow in Georgia, THE NATION, May 26, 2008, at 20, 21, available at http://www.thenation.com/article/juan-crow-georgia.
28. See Rhonda V. MaGee, Slavery as Immigration?, 44 U.S.F. L. REV. 273, 287 (2009)
29. citing Walter Berns, The Constitution and the Migration of Slaves, 78 YALE L.J. 198, 200 (1968). As Bilder has shown, slavery was not merely a degrading, exploitative economic system, legal status assignment, and existential condition. Rather it was also a means of transporting men and women from Africa and the diaspora into the colonies and slave-importing southern states. In other words, slavery was "both a labor relationship and a way of moving people" from one national landscape to another. Enslaved people were "simultaneously individuals who increased population and a pool of bound labor."
30. quoting Mary Sarah Bilder, The Struggle over Immigration: Indentured Servants, Slaves, and Articles of Commerce, 61 MO. L. REV. 743, 761 (1996) (footnotes omitted).
31. See Karen E. Bravo, Exploring the Analogy Between Modern Trafficking in Humans and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, 25 B.U. INT'L L.J. 207, 211-12 (2007);
32. see also Karen Bravo, Free Labor! A Labor Liberalization Solution to Modern Trafficking in Humans, 18 TRANSNAT'L L. & CONTEMP. PROBS. 545, 569-70 (2009) [hereinafter Bravo, Free Labor]. In addition, some scholars use the forced migration of slaves to challenge the notion that early American history contained no immigration policy.
33. citing Gabriel J. Chin, Chae Chan Ping & Fong Yue Ting, The Origins of Plenary Power, in IMMIGRATION STORIES 7 (David A. Martin & Peter H. Schuck eds., 2005);
34. Karla Mari McKanders, Sustaining Tiered Personhood: Jim Crow and Anti-Immigrant Laws, 26 HARV. J. ON RACIAL & ETHNIC JUST. 163, 170-71 (2010).
35. Thomas D. Morris, Free Men All: The Personal Liberty Laws of the North 1780-1861, at 16-17 (1974).
36. U.S. CONST, art. IV, § 2, cl. 3 (superseded by U.S. CONST, amend. XIII).
37. Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 41 U.S. (16 Pet.) 539, 615 (1842);
38. Act of Feb. 12, 1793, ch. 7, § 3, 1 Stat. 302, 302-05 (1845);
39. see also Act of Feb. 12, 1793, § 3, 1 Stat, at 302-05.
40. Act of Feb. 12, 1793, §3,1 Stat, at 302-05.
41. Morgan Cloud, Quakers, Slaves and the Founders: Profiling to Save the Union, 73 MISS. L.J. 369,401 (2003)
42. citing Act of Feb. 12, 1793, § 3, 1 Stat, at 305.
43. Charles A. Lindquist, The Origin and Development of the United States Commissioner System, 14 AM. J. LEGAL HIST. 1, 7 (1970)
44. quoting HOMER S. CUMMINGS & CARL McFarland, Federal Justice: Chapters in the History of Justice and the Federal EXECUTIVE 175 (1937);
45. Act of Feb. 12, 1793, §3, 1 Stat, at 302-05.
46. Jones v. Van Zandt, 46 U.S. (5 How.) 215, 217 (1847).
47. Marion Gleason McDougall, Fugitive Slaves (1619-1865), at 65 (1891).
48. Edward Raymond Turner, The Abolition of Slavery in Pennsylvania, 36 PA. MAG. HIST. & BIOGRAPHY 129, 129 (1912), available at http://www.jstor.org/ stable/10.2307/20085586.
49. Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 41 U.S. (16 Pet.) 539, 539 (1842). The personal liberty statute provided that if any person or persons shall from and after the passing of the act, by force or violence take and carry away, or cause to be taken and carried away, and shall by fraud or false pretense, seduce, or cause to be seduced, or shall attempt to take, carry away, or seduce any negro or mulatto from any part of that commonwealth, with a design and intention of selling and disposing of, or causing to be sold, or of keeping and detaining, or of causing to be kept and detained, such negro or mulatto, as a slave or servant for life, or for any term whatsoever; every such person or persons, his or their aiders or abettors, shall, on conviction thereof, be deemed guilty of felony, and shall forfeit and pay a sum not less than five hundred, nor more than one thousand dollars; and moreover, shall be sentenced to undergo a servitude for any term or terms of years, not less than seven years nor exceeding twenty-one years; and shall be confined and kept to hard labour....
50. Paul Finkelman, An Imperfect Union: Slavery Federalism, and Comity 65 (1981).
51. declaration of the immediate causes which induce and justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union 7 (1860).
52. Cong. Globe App., 36th, 1 st Sess. 152 (1860).
53. Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 41 U.S. (16 Pet.) 539 (1842).
54. Prigg, 41 U.S. at 609.
55. Prigg, 41 U.S. at 608-09;
56. THOMAS H. TALBOT, THE CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION Respecting Fugitives from Service or Labor, and the Act of Congress, of September 18, 1850, at 29 (1852).
57. Prigg, 41 U.S. at 609.
58. See Act of Feb. 12, 1793, ch. 7, § 3, 1 Stat. 302, 302-05 (1845).
59. Prigg, 41 U.S. at 609;
60. quoting Prigg, 41 U.S. at 609.
61. Prigg, 41 U.S. at 608.
62. Prigg, 4 U.S. at 609.
63. Jane H. pease & William H. Pease, The Fugitive Slave Law and Anthony BURNS: A Problem in Law Enforcement 5 (Harold M. Hyman ed., 1975).
64. Prigg, 41 U.S. at 586;
65. Prigg, 41 U.S. at 598.
66. Prigg, 41 U.S. at 622.
67. See STANLEY W. CAMPBELL, THE SLAVE CATCHERS: ENFORCEMENT OF THE FUGITIVE Slave Law, 1850-1860, at 14 (1970).
68. See Act of September 18, 1850, ch. 60, 9 Stat. 462;
69. Act of September 18, 1850, §§ 1, 5-7, 9 Stat, at 462-64. Section 1 stated that the federal government may "exercise the power that any justice of the peace, or other magistrate of any of the United States, may exercise in respect to offenders for any crime or offense against the United States by arresting, imprisoning, or bailing" by the same virtue as judicial courts of the United States.
70. quoting Act of 1850, § 3,9 Stat, at 462.
71. citing 1 Stat. 680-81, 682 (1812).
72. citing Act of Sept. 18, 1850, ch. 60, § § 3-4, 9 Stat. 462,462.
73. Act of Sept. 18, 1850, § 4, 9 Stat, at 462;
74. citing Allen Johnson, The Constitutionality of the Fugitive Slave Acts, 31 YALE L.J. 161, 181-82 (1921);
75. Act of Sept. 18, 1850, § 4, 9 Stat, at 462 (emphasis added).
76. Act of Sept. 18,1850, ch. 60, §§ 2, 5, 9 Stat. 462,462-63.
77. seealso Act of Sept. 18, 1850, § 5, 9 Stat, at 463.
78. Donald G. Nieman, From Slaves to Citizens: African-Americans, Rights Consciousness, and Reconstruction, 17 CARDOZO L. Rev. 2115, 2115-16 (1996) ("Even most antislavery politicians admitted that the Constitution denied the federal government authority to interfere with slavery in any state that chose to sanction it.").
79. Douglas L. Colbert, Liberating the Thirteenth Amendment, 30 Harv. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev. 1, 8 (1995) (footnotes omitted) ("States' rights advocates knew that granting freedom meant much more than a simple exemption from personal servitude. They argued that freedom for African Americans would mean the right to participate in government and to enjoy the rights of citizenship. They fully appreciated that abolishing slavery would make African Americans their equals before the law.").
80. Sarah H. Cleveland, Powers Inherent in Sovereignty: Indians, Aliens, Territories, and Nineteenth Century Origins of Plenary Power over Foreign Affairs, 81 TEX. L. REV. 1, 81-83 (2002).
81. Gerald Neuman, Strangers to the Constitution 19(1996);
82. In the 1790 Naturalization Act, Congress required state courts to record applications for citizenship. Act of Mar. 26, 1790, ch. 3, § 1, 1 Stat. 103, 103. Further, states had to transmit abstracts of citizenship applications and other naturalization records to the Secretary of State.
83. Act of June 18, 1798, ch. 54, § 2, 1 Stat. 566, 567. States also had to register aliens seeking naturalization and issue certificates of registry.
84. Act of Apr. 14, 1802, ch. 28, § 2, 2 Stat. 153, 154-55;
85. Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393, 404-05 (1857), superseded by U.S. Const, amend. XIV.
86. quoting DAVID M. POTTER, THE IMPENDING CRISIS, 1848-1861, at 293 (1976).
87. U.S. CONST, amend. XIII & XIV.
88. John P. Frank & Robert F. Munro, The Original Understanding of "Equal Protection of the Laws, " 50 COLUM. L. REV. 131, 135-36 (1950).
89. U.S. CONST, amend. XIV.
90. Kevin R. Johnson, Race, the Immigration Laws, and Domestic Race Relations: A "Magic Mirror" into the Heart of Darkness, 73 IND. L.J. 1111, 1122-23 (1998);
91. In re Ah Fong, 1 F. Cas. 213, 216 (C.C.D. Cal. 1874) (No. 102).
92. citing Ah Fong, 1 F. Cas. at 216-17.
93. Ah Fong, 1 F. Cas. at 216-17.
94. See U.S. CONST, amend. XIV.
95. Ah Fong, 1 F. Cas. at 217.
96. citing Boiling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497, 500 (1954).
97. Chae Chan Ping v. United States, 130 U.S. 581, 589 (1889).
98. Fong Yue Ting v. United States, 149 U.S. 698, 705 (1893);
99. see also Chae Chan Ping, 130 U.S. at 606.
100. Chae Chan Ping, 130 U.S. at 589, 611.
101. See Chae Chan Ping, 130 U.S. at 609.
102. quoting Fong Yue Ting, 149 U.S. at 714, 729.
103. But see United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649, 705 (1898) (finding that, under the Fourteenth Amendment, a child born in America to Chinese parents was a U.S. citizen).
104. Hiroshi Motomura, Federalism, International Human Rights, and Immigration Exceptionalism, 70 U. COLO. L. REV. 1361, 1361 (1999).
105. Pratheepan Gulasekaram, Aliens with Guns: Equal Protection, Federal Power, and the Second Amendment, 92 IOWA L. REV. 891, 939-41 (2007) (discussing other instances of constitutional conflict).
106. quoting STUART CREIGHTON MILLER, THE UNWELCOME IMMIGRANT 151 (1969);
107. Plessy v. Fergusson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896)
108. overruled by Brown v. Bd. of Educ. of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
109. quoting Plessy, 163 U.S. at 561 (Harlan, J., dissenting).
110. Plessy, 163 U.S. at 559 (Harlan, J., dissenting). The white race deems itself to be the dominant race in this country. And so it is, in prestige, in achievements, in education, in wealth and in power. So, I doubt not, it will continue to be for all time, if it remains true to its great heritage and holds fast to the principles of constitutional liberty. Id.
111. Letter from Governor Janice Brewer to President Barack Obama (June 23, 2010), available at http://www.azgovemor.gov/dms/upload/PR-062410- LettertoPresidentObama.pdf;
112. Nat'l Conference of State Legislatures, 2010 Immigration-Related Laws and Resolutions in the States (Jan. 1-Dec. 31, 2010), NCSL (Jan. 5, 2011), http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/immig/2010-immigration-related-laws-and- resolutions-in-t.aspx.
113. See, e.g., Common Threat Present in Immigration Law Challenges, CNN (June 28, 2011), http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/06/28/immigration.laws/index.html.
114. Karla Mari McKanders, Constitutionality of State and Local Laws Targeting Immigrants, 31 U. ARK. LITTLE ROCK L. REV. 579, 585 (2009).
115. See generally Rick Su, A Localist Reading of Local Immigration Regulations, 86 N.C. L. REV. 1619 (2008);
116. Laurel R. Boatright, "Clear Eye for the State Guy": Clarifying Authority and Trusting Federalism to Increase Nonfederal Assistance with Immigration Enforcement, 84 TEX. L. REV. 1633, 1653-54 (2006);
117. 8 U.S.C. § 1357(a) (2006).
118. S.B. 1070, 2010 Ariz. Sess. Laws 450
119. codified in scattered sections of ARIZ. REV. Stat. Ann. (2011).
120. S.B. 1070, Sec. 1, 2010 Ariz. Sess. Laws 450, 450 ("The provisions of this act are intended to work together to discourage and deter the unlawful entry and presence of aliens and economic activity by persons unlawfully present in the United States.").
121. S.B. 1070, Sec. 2, 2010 Ariz. Sess. Laws at 451.
122. Compare id, with 8 U.S.C. § 1357(a) (2006).
123. S.B. 1070, Sec. 3, 2010 Ariz. Sess. Laws at 453-55.
124. See ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 13-509(H) (Supp. 2011). The original penalties in S.B. 1070 were harsher than those codified, but H.B. 2162 lessened these penalties.
125. H.B. 2162, 2010 Ariz. Sess. Laws 1070, 1076
126. codified in scattered sections of ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. (2011).
127. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-509(H).
128. 70 F. Supp. 2d 980 (D. Ariz. 2010)
129. affd, 641 F.3d 339 (9th Cir. 2011)
130. qff"d in part, rev'dinpart, and remanded, 132 S. Ct. 2492 (2012).
131. Complaint, Friendly House v. Whiting, No. CV 10-1061 (D. Ariz. May 17, 2010), 2010 WL 2019492.
132. On September 5, 2012, Judge Susan R. Bolton denied the specifc part of the plaintiffs' motion to enjoin the enforcement of subsection 2(B) of Arizona law S.B. 1070. Valle del Sol v. Whiting, No. CV 10-1061 (D. Ariz. Sept. 5, 2012), http://nilc.org/sbl070friendlyhouse.html.
133. Arizona v. United States, 132 S. Ct. 2492 (2012).
134. H.R. H.B. 56, 2011 Leg. (Ala. 2011).
135. Complaint at 2, Hispanic Interest Coal. Of Ala. V. Bentley, No. 5:ll-cv-2428-SLB, 2011 WL 5516953 (N.D. Ala. Sept. 28, 2011).
136. Am. Civil Liberties Union Found. Immigration Rights Project, Preliminary Analysis of HB 56, "Alabama Taxpayer and Citizen Protection Act", ACLU, https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/prelimanalysis-alabama-hb56-0.pdf (last visited May 28, 2012).
137. H.R. H.B. 56 § 2, 2011 (Ala. 2011).
138. M §28.
139. Hispanic Interest Coal, of Ala. v. Bentley, No. 5:ll-CV-02484-SLB, 2011 WL 5516953, at 36-37 (N.D. Ala. July 8, 2011).
140. Illegal Immigration Reform and Enforcement Act, H.B. 87, 2011 Ga. Laws 794
141. codified in scattered sections of Ga. Code Ann. (West 2011).
142. Ga. code Ann. § 16-9-121.1 (Supp. 2011).
143. 793 F. Supp. 2d 1317, 1322 (N.D. Ga. 2011)
144. affd in part, rev 'd in part, and remanded, 691 F.3d 1250 (lPcir. 2012).
145. Complaint at 31, Deal, 793 F. Supp. 2d 1317 (No. 1:11 -CV-1804-TWT).
146. Wat 31-32.
147. UTAH Code ANN. §§ 76-9-1001 to 76-9-1009 and 77-7-2 (Supp. 2011).
148. Complaint at 5, Utah Coal, of La Raza v. Herbert, No. 2:11-CV-401-CW, 2011 WL 7143098 (D. Utah May 11, 2011).
149. 8 U.S.C. § 1357(a) (2006);
150. Ariane de Vogue, Supreme Court Takes Up Arizona's Strict Immigration Law, ABC NEWS (Dec. 12, 2011, 10:53 AM), http://abcnews.go.com/blogs /politics/2011/12/Supreme.court.takes.up.arizonas.strict.immigration.law./.
151. Lynn Tramonte, Debunking the Myth of "Sanctuary Cities", IMMIGRATION POLICY CTR. (Apr. 26, 2011), http://www.immigrationpolicy.org/ special-reports/debunking-myth-sanctuary-cities ("Historically, the federal government has enforced civil immigration law, and state and local police have focused on enforcing criminal law. However, propelled by increased frustration with the nation's broken immigration system and by growing anti-immigrant sentiment, politicians' demands for state and local police to take an increased role in immigration enforcement have grown exponentially. This culminated in the passage of Arizona's notorious SB 1070 [sic] law in 2010, which would turn Arizona state and local police officers into deportation agents.").
152. Editorial, The Nation's Crudest Immigration Law, N.Y. TIMES (Aug. 28, 2011), http://www.nytimes.com/2011 /08/29/opinion/the-nations-cruelest- immigration-law.html.
153. Sameer M. Ashar, Immigration Enforcement and Subordination: The Consequences of Racial Profiting After September 11, 34 CONN. L. REV. 1185, 1196 (2002).
154. citing U.S. Dep't of Justice, Civil Rights Div., Guidance Regarding the Use of Race by Federal Law Enforcement Agencies (June 2003), available at http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/spl/documents/guidance-on-race.pdf.
155. citing Hudgins. v. Wright, 11 Va. (1 Hen. & M.) 134, 141 (1806).
156. Larry D. Stokes, Legislative and Court Decisions That Promulgated Racial Profiling: A Sociohistorical Perspective, 23 J. CONTEMP. CRIM. JUST. 263, 268 (2007), available at http://ccj.sagepub.eom/content/23/3.toc.
157. The Kidnapping Case. Narrative of the Seizure and Recovery of Solomon Northrup. Interesting Disclosures. N.Y. DAILY TIMES, Jan. 20, 1853, at Al [hereinafter The Kidnapping Case] (stating that Northrup was "a free colored citizen of the United States; was born in Essex County, New York, about the year 1808").
158. Kevin R. Johnson, How Racial Profiling in America Became the Law of the Land: United States v. Brignoni-Ponce and Whren v. United States and the Need for Truly Rebellious Lawyering, 98 GEO. L.J. 1005, 1007 (2010) (discussing Brignoni-Ponce).
159. Renteria-Villegas v. Metro. Gov't of Nashville & Davidson Cnty., 796 F. Supp. 2d 900 (M.D. Tenn. 2011)
160. motion to certify appeal denied, No. 3:11-00218, 2011 WL 2938428 (M.D. Tenn. July 19, 2011).
161. Becky Petit, Enumerating Inequality: The Constitution, the Census Bureau, and the Criminal Justice System, 9 CONN. PUB. INT. L.J. 37, 40 (2009) ("At the nation's founding[,] the three-fifths compromise required the consideration of slaves as three fifths of a free person for apportionment"
162. citing Margo J. ANDERSON & STEPHEN E. FlENBERG, WHO COUNTS?: THE Politics of Census-Taking in Contemporary America 14(1999).
163. Linda S. Bosniak, Exclusion and Membership: The Dual Identity of the Undocumented Worker Under United States Law, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 955, 986 (1988) ("[E]ven where formal rights exist, the ability of the undocumented to exercise these rights in practice is limited. Undocumented aliens often fear exposing themselves to the exclusionary powers of the state and will often forego the exercise of membership rights in order to avoid such an eventuality. Undocumented immigrants commonly decline to report private or official abuse and are frequently unwilling to pursue civil claims in court or to step forward to receive benefits to which they are entitled." (footnotes omitted));
164. see also Beth Lyon, The Unsigned United Nations Worker Rights Convention: An Overlooked Opportunity to Change the "Brown Collar" Migration Paradigm, 42 N.Y.U. J. INT'L L. 389, 393 (2010) (arguing for the United States to ratify the United Nations Convention to prompt Americans to consider that immigrant workers should receive human rights protections).
165. Bill Ong Hing, Don V Give Me Your Tired, Your Poor: Conflicted Immigrant Stories and Welfare Reform, 33 HARV. C.R.-CL. L. REV. 159, 162 (1998) ("The costs for immigrants are demonstrable and severe in terms of stigmatization, invasion of privacy, denial of a social and employment safety net, and the lasting invalidation of their and our collective dreams for progress and community.");
166. Kathleen Newland & Demetrios G. Papademetriou, Managing International Migration: Tracking the Emergence of a New International Regime, 3 UCLA J. INT'L L. & FOREIGN AFF. 637, 650 (1998) (discussing "economic stream employment- or skills-based immigration" where immigration decisions "are based primarily on economic considerations, such as the need for skilled workers, and calculations about the foreign workers' effect on the jobs and income of citizens," and noting further "[i]n recent years, this immigration stream has become omnipresent across advanced industrial societies as globalization and the imperatives of international competition combine to make many foreign workers, from highly educated scientists to temporary agricultural workers, highly desirable.").
167. Michelle Brane & Christina Lundholm, Human Rights Behind Bars: Advancing the Rights of Immigration Detainees in the United States Through Human Rights Frameworks, 22 GEO. IMMIGR. L.J. 147, 147 (2008) (addressing the "urgent need for creative approaches in upholding international human rights norms . . . and extending protection to those affected");
168. Kevin R. Johnson, The End of "Civil Rights " as We Know It?: Immigration and Civil Rights in the New Millennium, 49 UCLA L. REV. 1481, 1499 (2002) ("In sum, if history proves to be an accurate guide, immigration and immigration enforcement will remain a civil rights trouble spot.");
169. Lamar Smith & Edward R. Grant, Immigration Reform: Seeking the Right Reasons, 28 ST. MARY'S L.J. 883, 893-94 (1997) (discussing the need for immigration reform that accounts for the basic human dignity of any person).
170. See generally Kristina M. Oven, The Immigrant First as Human: International Human Rights Principles and Catholic Doctrine as New Moral Guidelines for U.S. Immigration Policy, 13 NOTRE DAME J.L. ETHICS & PUB. POL'Y 499 (1999) (highlighting the recent trend of laws that strip immigrants of their most basic human rights).
171. Linda Bosniak, The Citizen and the Alien: Dilemmas of Contemporary MEMBERSHIP 1 (2006) ("The idea of citizenship is commonly invoked to convey a state of democratic belonging or inclusion, yet this inclusion is usually premised on a conception of a community that is bounded and exclusive. Citizenship as an ideal is understood to embody a commitment against subordination, but citizenship can also represent an axis of subordination itself.");
172. see also Hiroshi Motomura, Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States 70-79 (2006).
173. see also Devon W. Carbado, Racial Naturalization, 57 Am. Q. 633, 641, 651 (2005) ("Race is implicated in naturalization not only as a prerequisite that is, as a basis for determining who gets to become an American citizen. Race also determines the kind [social] status one occupies.").
174. Linda S. Bosniak, Opposing Prop. 187: Undocumented Immigrants and the National Imagination, 28 CONN. L. REV. 555, 585, 578-79 (1996) ("[S]ubsuming alienage-based exclusion into analyses of racial and cultural marginalization is problematic, not merely because not all undocumented immigrants belong to ethnic and racial minority groups, but also because it fails to capture what is specific about the exclusion experienced by undocumented immigrants, which is constituted, in substantial part, by their irregular status under the country's immigration laws." (footnotes omitted));
175. Nicholas Boston, Slavery and the Making of America: The Slave Experience, Historical Overview: Living Conditions, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery/ experience/living/history2.html (last visited May 28,2012).
176. Wendy Williams, Model Enforcement of Wage and Hour Laws for Undocumented Workers: One Step Closer to Equal Protection Under the Law, 37 COLUM. HUM. RTS. L. REV. 755, 756, 760 (2006).
177. quoting Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 2459(1866).
178. quoting ULRICH BONNELL PHILLIPS, THE COURSE OF THE SOUTH TO SECESSION 152 (E. Merton Coulter, ed. 1939).
179. see also Michael J. Wishnie, Laboratories of Bigotry? Devolution of the Immigration Power, Equal Protection, and Federalism, 76 N.Y.U. L. REV. 493, 568 (2001) (concluding that Congress cannot "devolve by statute its exclusive immigration power to the States").
180. Act of Feb. 12, 1793, ch. 7, § 3, 1 Stat. 302, 302-05 (1845);
181. Act of Sept. 18, 1850, ch. 60, § 1,9 Stat. 462,462-65.
182. Brief for the Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Race, Ethnicity, and Diversity at University of California, Berkeley Law School as Amicus Curiae in Support of Plaintiffs-Appellees, Supporting Affirmance at 5, Lozano v. City of Hazleton, 496 F. Supp. 2d 477 (M.D. Pa. 2007)
183. ajfd in part, vacated in part, 620 F.3d 170 (3d Cir. 2010)
184. cert, granted, judgment vacated sub. nom., 131 S. Ct. 2958 (2011);
185. see also Roberto Suro & Sonya Tafoya, The New Latino South: The Context and Consequences of Rapid Population Growth, PEW HISPANIC CTR., i (July 26, 2005), http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/50.pdf ("[S]izeable Hispanic populations have emerged suddenly in communities where Latinos were a sparse presence just a decade or two ago.").