The Citizen and the Alien: Dilemmas of Contemporary Membership

The Citizen and the Alien: Dilemmas of Contemporary Membership

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-222

  Bosniak, Linda ^a  

^a NONE

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References (322)

1. Iris Marion Young, "Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship," 99 Ethics no. 2 (1989).
2. Linda Bosniak, "The Citizenship of Aliens," 56 Social Text at 29-35 (1998).
3. John Rawls, Political Liberalism (Columbia Univ. Press, 1993).
4. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice 8 (Harvard Univ. Press, 1971).
5. See, e.g., Charles R. Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations 129-136 (Princeton Univ. Press, 1999) (1979);
6. Samuel Scheffler, Boundaries and Allegiances:Problems of Justice and Responsibility in Liberal Thought 32-47 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2001).
7. For critiques of the Rawlsian premise as it applies to the immigration context, see, e.g., Joseph Carens, "Aliens and Citizens: The Case for Open Borders," 49 Rev. Pol. 251 (1987);
8. Seyla Benhabib, "Citizens, Residents and Aliens in a Changing World: Political Membership in the Global Era," 66 Soc. Res. 709 (1999).
9. International Organization for Migration, "Facts and Figures on Migration," http://www.iom.int/DOCUMENTS/PUBLICATION/EN/MPI_series_No_2_eng .pdf.
10. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (Basic Books, 1983), at 30.
11. See also W. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany 22 (Harvard Univ. Press, 1992).
12. See Etienne Balibar, We the People of Europe? Reflections on Transnational Citizenship (James Swenson, trans., Princeton Univ. Press, 2004) for an important recent theoretical treatment of the interiorization of borders.
13. Iris Marion Young, "Status Inequality and Social Groups," in Issues in Legal Scholarship: The Origins and Fate of Antisubordination Theory, Article 9 (2002), available at www.bepress.com/ils/iss2/art9.
14. Raymond Williams, Keywords (1983).
15. Quentin Skinner, "Language and Political Change," in Political Innovation and Conceptual Change 10 (Terrence Ball et al., eds., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989).
16. Ball et al., "Editors' Introduction," Political Innovation and Conceptual Change at 2.
17. For two exceptionally useful works on these themes, see Craig Calhoun, Critical Social Theory (Blackwell, 1995) (identity)
18. Samuel Scheffler, Boundaries and Allegiances (Oxford Univ. Press, 2001) (responsibility).
19. Judith Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion 1 (Harvard Univ. Press, 1991).
20. J.G.A. Pocock, "The Ideal of Citizenship since Classical Times," in The Citizenship Debates (Gershon Shafir, ed., Univ. of Minn. Press 1998);
21. Michael Walzer, "Citizenship," in Political Innovation and Conceptual Change (Terence Ball, James Farr, and Russell L. Hanson, eds., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989).
22. T. H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1949).
23. Margaret R. Somers, "Rights, Relationality, and Membership: Rethinking the Making and Meaning of Citizenship," 19 Law & Social Inquiry 63 (1994);
24. Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "Civil Citizenship against Social Citizenship?," in The Condition of Citizenship (Bart van Steenbergen, ed., Sage, 1994);
25. Lawrence M. Mead, "Citizenship and Social Policy: T. H. Marshall and Poverty," 14 Social Philosophy and Policy 197 (1997).
26. See generally Kenneth Karst, Belonging to America: Equal Citizenship and the Constitution (Yale Univ. Press, 1989);
27. Rogers M. Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (Yale Univ. Press, 1998).
28. Richard Flathman, "Citizenship and Authority: A Chastened View of Citizenship," in Theorizing Citizenship (Ronald Beiner, ed., State University of New York Press, 1995).
29. Martha Nussbaum, "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism," in For Love of Country (Joshua Cohen, ed., Beacon Press, 1996).
30. Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism and 'The Politics of Recognition' (Princeton Univ. Press, 1992).
31. Joseph Carens, "Aliens and Citizens: The Case for Open Borders," 49 Rev. of Pol. 251 (1987);
32. see also Pamela Johnston Conover, "Citizen Identities and Conceptions of the Self" 3 J. Pol. Phil. 133, 134 (1995) (citizenship "encompasses a variety of elements, some legal, some psychological and some behavioral").
33. Conover, "Citizen Identities and Conceptions of the Self," at 134.
34. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman, "Return of the Citizen: A Survey of Recent Work on Citizenship Theory," 104 Ethics 352 (1994).
35. Pocock, "The Ideal of Citizenship Since Classical Times." 13.
36. Marx, "On the Jewish Question," in Karl Marx: Early Writings (Vintage, 1975).
37. This was an axiom of the legal realists and later of scholars identified with the critical legal studies movement. See generally Robert Gordon, "Critical Legal Histories," 36 Stan. L. Rev. (1984).
38. Iris Marion Young, "Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship," 99 Ethics 250 (1989).
39. Susan Moller Okin, "Women, Equality and Citizenship," in 99 Queens Q. 33 (Spring 1992);
40. Carol Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1970).
41. Benjamin Barber, "Clansmen, Consumers and Citizen: Three Takes on Civil Society," in Civil Society,Democracy and Civic Renewal (Robert K. Fullinwider, ed., Rowman & Littlefield, 1999);
42. Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Simon & Schuster, 2000).
43. Richard Dagger, Civic Virtues: Rights, Citizenship, and Republican Liberalism 99 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1997).
44. William Forbath, "Class, Caste and Equal Citizenship," 98 Mich. L. Rev. 1 (1999);
45. Shklar, American Citizenship.
46. Bruce Ackerman and Anne Alstott, The Stakeholder Society (Yale Univ. Press, 1999).
47. Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "Civil Citizenship against Social Citizenship? On the Ideology of Contract-Versus-Charity," in The Condition of Citizenship (Bart van Steenbergen, ed., Sage, 1994).
48. William Flores and Rina Benmayor, eds., Latino Cultural Citizenship:Claiming Identity, Space and Rights 57 (Beacon Press, 1997);
49. Young, "Polity and Group Difference" 14.
50. Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford Univ. Press, 1995).
51. See especially Ayelet Schachar, Multicultural Jurisdictions: Cultural Differences and Women's Rights (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001).
52. David Miller, Citizenship and National Identity (Polity Press, 2000).
53. Richard Falk, "The Making of Global Citizenship," in The Condition of Citizenship (Bart van Steenbergen, ed., Sage, 1994);
54. Yasemin Nohoglu Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and PostnationalMembership in Europe (Cornell Univ. Press, 1994);
55. Andrew Linklater, "Cosmopolitan Citizenship," in Cosmopolitan Citizenship (Kimberly Hutchings and Roland Dannreuther, eds., St. Martin's Press, 1999).
56. For an extensive discussion of this literature, see Linda Bosniak, "Citizenship Denationalized," 7 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 447 (2000).
57. Hannah Arendt, Men in Dark Times 81 (Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968).
58. Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Illusions of Cosmopolitanism," in For Love of Country 1194 (Joshua Cohen, ed., Beacon Press, 1996)..
59. For a general discussion, see Hans Ulfich Jessurun d'Olivera, "Union Citizenship:Pie in the Sky?" in A Citizen's Europe: In Search of a New World Order (Allan Rosas and Esko Antola, eds., Sage, 1995).
60. Baubock, Transnational Citizenship;
61. Soysal, Limits of Citizenship.
62. Michael Peter Smith, "Can You Imagine? Transnational Migration and the Globalization of Grassroots Politics," 39 Soc. Text 15 (1994).
63. Linda Basch, Nina Glick Schiller, and Cristina Szanton-Blanc, Nations Unbound:Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments and Deterritorialized Nation-States (Gordon and Breach, 2004).
64. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Cornell Univ. Press, 1998).
65. Aihwa Ong, Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality (Duke Univ. Press, 1999);
66. Falk, "The Making of Global Citizenship" at 43-44 (describing "deterritorialized and elite global culture").
67. Alejandro Portes, "Global Villagers: The Rise of Transnational Communities," in American Prospect 77 (Mar.-Apr. 1996).
68. Linda Bosniak, "Multiple Nationality and the Postnational Transformation of Citizenship," 42 Va. J. Int'l L. 979 (2002) (on transnational citizenship).
69. David Jacobson, Rights across Borders: Immigration and the Decline of Citizenship (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1996).
70. Miller, Citizenship and National Identity, at 96.
71. Bosniak, "Citizenship Denationalized" at 508.
72. Linklater, "Cosmopolitan Citizenship" at 36;
73. Nussbaum, "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism";
74. Thomas Pogge, "Cosmopolitanism and Sovereignty," 103 Ethics 48, 49 (Oct. 1992)
75. Falk, "The Making of Global Citizenship." 53.
76. David Miller, On Nationality (Oxford Univ. Press, 1995).
77. Charles Taylor, "Cross-Purposes: The Liberal-Communitarian Debate," in Liberalism and the Moral Life (Nancy L. Rosenblum, ed., Harvard Univ. Press, 1989).
78. Jocelyne Couture and Kai Nielsen (with Michael Seymour), "Afterword," in Rethinking Nationalism 593 (Jocelyne Couture et al., eds., Univ. of Calgary Press, 1998).
79. Henry Shue, Basic Rights: Substance, Affluence and American Foreign Policy 132 (Princeton Univ. Press, 1980) (criticizing what he terms the "priority thesis").
80. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class, at 84 (my emphasis).
81. Walzer, "Citizenship." 63.
82. Karst, Belonging to America, at 3.
83. Iris Marion Young, "Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship," at 250-251.
84. Fraser and Gordon, "Civil Citizenship against Social Citizenship?" 67.
85. Taylor, "Cross-Purposes";
86. Karst, Belonging to America.
87. Bart van Steenbergen, "Towards a Global Ecological Citizen," in The Condition of Citizenship (Sage, 1994).
88. J. P. McFadden, "Toward the New Future," 25 The Human Life Review (Jan. 1999).
89. Peter Schuck and Rogers Smith, Citizenship without Consent: Illegal Aliens in the American Polity (Yale Univ. Press 1985).
90. See generally Rights and Duties of Dual Nationals: Evolution and Prospects (David A. Martin and Kay Hailbronner, eds., Kluwer Law International, 2003);
91. Peter Spiro, "Dual Nationality and the Meaning of Citizenship," 46 Emory L.J. 1435 (1997);
92. Linda Bosniak, "Multiple Nationality and the Postnational Transformation of Citizenship," 42 Va. J. Int'l L. 979 (2002).
93. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Harvard Univ. Press, 1992).
94. Spiro, "Dual Nationality and the Meaning of Citizenship." 77.
95. Alexander M. Bickel, The Morality of Consent 36 (Yale U. Press, 1975).
96. Peter Schuck, "The Devaluation of Citizenship," in Citizens, Strangers, and In-Betweens: Essays on Immigration and Citizenship (Westview, 1998);
97. Noah Pickus, True Faith and Allegiance: Immigration and American Civic Nationalism (Princeton Univ. Press, 2005).
98. See generally Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (Basic Books, 1983).
99. Bruce Ackerman, Social Justice in the Liberal State (Yale Univ. Press, 1980).
100. Carens, "Aliens and Citizens." 82.
101. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany.
102. Soysal, Limits of Citizenship;
103. Schuck, "The Devaluation of Citizenship."
104. Linda Bosniak, "Membership, Equality and the Difference That Alienage Makes," 69 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1047 (1994).
105. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany at 31.
106. On citizenship's consequentiality, see William Rogers Brubaker, "Introduction," in Immigration and the Politics of Citizens in Europe and North America 4 (William Rogers Brubaker, ed., University Press of America, 1989).
107. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (Basic Books, 1983).
108. Michael Walzer, "The Distribution of Membership," in Boundaries: National Autonomy and Its Limits 1-36 (Peter Brown and Henry Shue, eds., Rowman & Littlefield, 1981).
109. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, at 39.
110. Joseph H. Carens, "States and Refugees: A Normative Analysis," in Refugee Policy: Canada and the United States 22 (Howard Adelman, ed., Center for Migration Studies of New York, 1991)
111. Walzer, "The Distribution of Membership," at 23;
112. Walzer, Spheres of Justice at 62.
113. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, at 54-55.
114. See generally Michael Walzer, Interpretation and Social Criticism (Harvard Univ. Press, 1987).
115. Walzer, Spheres of Justice at xiv.
116. Robert K. Fullinwider, "Citizenship andWelfare," in Democracy and theWelfare State 261, 268 (Amy Gutmann, ed., Princeton Univ. Press, 1988).
117. Walzer, Spheres of Justice at 59.
118. Walzer, Spheres of Justice at 19.
119. Walzer, Spheres of Justice at 26.
120. Among the many commentaries to this effect, see generally Peter Schuck, "The Transformation of Immigration Law," 84 Col. L. Rev. 1 (1984);
121. Louis Henkin, "The Constitution and United States Sovereignty: A Century of Chinese Exclusion and Its Progeny," 100 Harv. L. Rev. 853, 862-63 (1987);
122. Aleinikoff, "Citizenship, Aliens, Membership and the Constitution";
123. Steven Legomsky, Immigration and the Judiciary 177-222 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1987);
124. Ibrahim Wani, "Truth, Strangers and Fiction: The Illegitimate Uses of Legal Fiction in Immigration Law," 11 Cardozo Law Rev. 51 (1989).
125. Aleinikoff, "Citizens, Aliens, Membership and the Constitution" at 11;
126. T. Alexander Aleinikoff, Semblances of Sovereignty: The Constitution, the State and American Citizenship (Cambridge: Harvard Univ., 2002), 11-38, 151-81.
127. Cole, "Enemy Aliens";
128. William Preston, Jr., Aliens and Dissenters: General Suppression of Radicals, 1903-1933 (Harvard Univ. Press, 1963);
129. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (2d ed., Rutgers Univ. Press, 1988);
130. For discussion of the history of American immigration policy toward homosexuals, see Jorge L. Carro, "From Constitutional Psychopathic Inferiority to AIDS: What Is in the Future for Homosexual Aliens?" 7 Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. 201 (1989).
131. Louis Henkin, "The Constitution and United States Sovereignty:A Century of Chinese Exclusion and Its Progeny," 100 Harv. L. Rev. 853 (1987);
132. T. Alexander Aleinikoff, "Federal Regulation of Aliens and the Constitution," 83 Am. J. Int'l L. 862 (1989);
133. Legomsky, Immigration and the Judiciary 117-222 (1987).
134. See generally Hirosh Motomura, "Immigration Law after a Century of Plenary Power: Phantom Constitutional Norms and Statutory Interpretation," 100 Yale L.J. 545 (1990);
135. Hiroshi Motomura, "The Curious Evolution of Immigration Law: Procedural Surrogates for Substantive Constitutional Rights," 92 Colum. L. Rev. 1625 (1992).
136. Michael J. Perry, "Equal Protection, Judicial Activism, and the Intellectual Agenda of Constitutional Theory: Reflections on, and Beyond, Plyler v. Doe," 44 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 329, 334-335 (1983).
137. For a more critical view of preemption analysis in this context, see Harold Koh, "Equality with a Human Face: Justice Blackmun and the Equal Protection of Aliens," 8 Hamline L. Rev. 51, 96-98 (1985)
138. See generally Linda S. Bosniak, "Exclusion and Membership: The Dual Identity of the Undocumented Immigrant under U.S. Law," 1988 Wis. L. Rev. 955, 977-87 (1988) (discussing the limited, but still significant, civil and social rights enjoyed by undocumented noncitizens).
139. Walzer, Spheres of Justice at 9.
140. Mae Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton Univ. Press, 2004).
141. Bosniak, "Exclusion and Membership." 178.
142. Bosniak, "Exclusion and Membership" at 986
143. For a thorough theoretical exposition of the "circles of membership" position, see generally David Martin, "Due Process and Membershp in the National Community: Political Asylum and Beyond," 44 Pittsburgh L. Rev. 165, 210-15 (1983).
144. See generally, Charles Taylor, "Cross-Purposes: The Liberal-Communitarian Debate, in Liberalism and the Moral Life (Nancy L. Rosenblum, ed., Harvard U. Press, 1989).
145. Joseph H. Carens, "Immigration and theWelfare State," inDemocracy and the Welfare State 207, 227 (Amy Gutmann, ed., Princeton Univ. Press, 1988)
146. Michael J. Perry, "Modern Equal Protection: A Conceptualization and Appraisal," 79 Col. L. Rev. 1023, 1061 (1979) (emphasis added).
147. Perry, "Equal Protection, Judicial Activism, and the Intellectual Agenda of Constitutional Theory" at 335.
148. For extensive discussion and citations, see Bosniak, "Citizenship Denationalized," 7 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 447 (2000) (symposium issue).
149. Alexander M. Bickel, "Citizenship in the American Constitution," 15 Ariz. L. Rev. 369 (1973).
150. Charles L. Black, Jr., Structure and Relationship in Constitutional Law 33-66 (Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1969).
151. Christopher Eisgruber, "Political Unity and the Powers of Government," 41 UCLA L. Rev. 1297, 1328, n. 117 (1994).
152. Linda Bosniak, "Citizenship Denationalized," 7 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 447, 450-453, 489-491 (2000);
153. Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "Civil Citizenship against Social Citizenship? On the Ideology of Contract-versus-Charity," in The Condition of Citizenship 90, 90 (Bart Van Steenbergen, ed., Sage, 1994) (describing citizenship as "a weighty, monumental, humanist word" that has "no pejorative uses").
154. Bickel, "Citizenship in the American Constitution." 12.
155. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman, "Return of the Citizen: A Survey of Recent Work on Citizenship Theory," 104 Ethics 352, 354 (1994).
156. William N. Eskridge, "The Relationship between Obligations and Rights of Citizens," 69 Fordham L. Rev. 1721, 1742-49 (2001);
157. William E. Forbath, "Caste, Class, and Equal Citizenship," 98 Mich. L. Rev. 1, 7-9 (1999);
158. Kenneth L. Karst, "The Coming Crisis ofWork in Constitutional Perspective," 82 Cornell L. Rev. 523 (1997).
159. Linda S. Bosniak, "Universal Citizenship and the Problem of Alienage," 94 Nw. U. L. Rev. 963 (2000).
160. Laurence H. Tribe, American Constitutional Law § 7-6, at 1325 (3d ed., Foundation Press, 2000).
161. John Hart Ely, Democracy and Distrust: A Theory of Judicial Review 25 (Harvard Univ. Press, 1980).
162. Michael Kent, Curtis, "Historical Linguistics, Inkblots, and Life after Death: The Privileges or Immunities of Citizens of the United States," 78 N.C.L. Rev. 1071, 1149 (2000);
163. William N. Eskridge, "The Relationship between Obligations and Rights of Citizenship";
164. Jeffrey Rosen, "Exclusion, Discrimination and the Making of Americans: America in Thick and Thin," New Republic, Jan. 5 & 12, 1998, 29, 36
165. Black, Structure and Relationship in Constitutional Law at 52-53.
166. Linda S. Bosniak, "The Citizenship of Aliens," Social Text at 29 (Fall 1998);
167. Gerald L. Neuman, "Rhetorical Slavery, Rhetorical Citizenship," 90 Mich. L. Rev. 1276, 1283-90 (1992).
168. Kurland, "The Privileges or Immunities Clause" at 420.
169. Ely, Democracy and Distrust at 25.
170. Philip Bobbitt, Constitutional Fate: Theory of the Constitution 89 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1982);
171. Nancy F. Cott, "Marriage and Women's Citizenship in the United States, 1830-1934," 103 Am. Historical Rev. 1440, 1448-49 (1998);
172. Earl Maltz, "ReconstructionWithout Revolution: Republican Civil Rights Theory in the Era of the Fourteenth Amendment," 24 Hous. L. Rev. 221 (1987);
173. Jeffrey Rosen, "Translating the Privileges or Immunities Clause," 66 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1241 (1998).
174. Christopher Eisgruber, "The Fourteenth Amendment's Constitution," 69 S. Cal. L. Rev. 47, 71 (1995) ("[The clause's] declaration of citizenship decisively repudiates state sovereignty.").
175. Bickel, "Citizenship in the American Constitution" at 374.
176. Mark Tushnet, Taking the Constitution Away from the Courts 191 (Princeton Univ. Press, 1999);
177. Eisgruber, "The Fourteenth Amendment's Constitution" at 78 (arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment "articulat[es] citizen identity").
178. Akhil Reed Amar, "The Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment," 101 Yale L.J. 1193 (1992);
179. Michael Kent Curtis, No State Shall Abridge: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights (Duke Univ. Press, 1986);
180. Kevin Christopher Newsom, "Setting Incorporationism Straight: A Reinterpretation of the Slaughter-House Cases," 109 Yale L.J. 643, 648 (2000)
181. Rogers M. Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History 2 (Yale Univ. Press, 1997)
182. Alexander M. Bickel, The Morality of Consent 51 (Yale Univ. Press, 1975) (describing the "traditional minimal content of the concept of citizenship").
183. Bickel, "Citizenship in the American Constitution" at 378.
184. Black, Structure and Relationship in Constitutional Law at 33-66;
185. Rebecca E. Zietlow, "Belonging, Protection and Equality: The Neglected Citizenship Clause and the Limits of Federalism," 62 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 281 (2000);
186. Jennifer S. Hendricks, "Women and the Promise of Equal Citizenship," 8 Tex. J. Women & L. 51 (1998);
187. Arthur Kinoy, "The Constitutional Right of Negro Freedom," 21 Rutgers L. Rev. 387, 395 (1967)
188. Ian F. Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (NewYork Univ. Press, 1996);
189. John Tehranian, "Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and the Construction of Racial Identity in America," 109 Yale L.J. 817 (2000);
190. Cott, "Marriage andWomen's Citizenship in the United States";
191. Leti Volpp, "Getting Married and Losing Citizenship," 52 UCLA L. Rev. (forthcoming, 2005).
192. See generally Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion and the Constitution (Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall, eds., Duke Univ. Press, 2001).
193. See generally Bosniak, "Universal Citizenship and the Problemof Alienage." 78.
194. See also Cott, "Marriage and Women's Citizenship in the United States." 79.
195. Gerald Neuman, Strangers to the Constitution: Immigrants, Borders, and Fundamental Law 63-71, 139-49 (Princeton Univ. Press, 1996);
196. Jamin B. Raskin, "Legal Aliens, Local Citizens: The Historical, Constitutional and Theoretical Meanings of Alien Suffrage," 141 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1391 (1993);
197. Gerald M. Rosberg, "Aliens and Equal Protection: Why Not the Right to Vote?," 75 Mich. L. Rev. 1092 (1977).
198. Charles L. Black, Jr., "The Unfinished Business of the Warren Court," 46 Wash. L. Rev. 3, 10 (1970).
199. Bobbitt, Constitutional Fate at 89.
200. Ely, Democracy and Distrust.
201. Michael Kent Curtis, "Historical Linguistics, Inkblots, and Life after Death: The Privileges or Immunities of Citizens of the United States," 78 N.C. L. Rev. 1071, 1149 (2000).
202. Michael Kent Curtis, "Two Textual Adventures: Thoughts on Reading Jeffrey Rosen's Paper," 66 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1269, 1272 (1998).
203. T. Alexander Aleinikoff, Between Principles and Politics: The Direction of U.S. Citizenship Policy 46 (Carnegie Endowment for Int'l Peace, 1998);
204. Schuck, "The Devaluation of American Citizenship." 105.
205. Georgie Ann Geyer, Americans No More (Atlantic Monthly Press, 1996).
206. Bosniak, "Exclusion and Membership";
207. Bosniak, "Difference That Alienage Makes";
208. Linda S. Bosniak, "Immigrants, Preemption, and Equality," 35 Va. J. Int'l L. 179 (1994);
209. Linda Bosniak, "Opposing Proposition 187:Undocumented Immigrants and the National Imagination," 28 Conn. L. Rev. 555 (1986);
210. Bosniak, "Universal Citizenship and the Problem of Alienage." 114. The concern is that noncitizens not be locked permanently into alienage status. See discussion in chapter 3.
211. Christopher L. Eisgruber, "The Fourteenth Amendment's Constitution" at 71.
212. Karst, "Forward" at 5.
213. Karst, "Why Equality Matters" at 248.
214. Karst, Belonging to America at 1.
215. Bosniak, "Universal Citizenship and the Problem of Alienage." 124.
216. T. Alexander Aleinikoff, "Citizenship (Update 2)," Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 368 (Leonard W. Levy and Kenneth L. Karst, eds., Macmillian Reference USA, 2000).
217. Brubaker, "Introduction" at 22;
218. Charles R. Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations (Princeton Univ. Press, 1979).
219. Michael Walzer, "Citizenship," in Political Innovation and Conceptual Change 211, 217 (Terence Ball et al., eds., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989, 1995).
220. Karst, "The Coming Crisis ofWork in Constitutional Perspective" at 549.
221. Karst, Why Equality Matters" at 280.
222. On these views, there is a substantial literature. For a sampling, see Global Justice: Nomos XLI (Ian Shapiro and Lea Brilmayer eds., New York Univ. Press, 1999).
223. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany 21 (Harvard Univ. Press, 1992) ("Although citizenship is internally inclusive, it is externally exclusive.").
224. Karst, Belonging to America at 45.
225. Bosniak, "Exclusion and Membership" at 986-87.
226. Bruce Ackerman and Ann Alsott, The Stakeholder Society (Yale Univ. Press, 1999).
227. Joel F. Handler, "Questions about Social Europe by an American Observer," 18 Wis. Int'l L.J. 437 (2000);
228. Charles Black, A New Birth of Freedom: Human Rights, Named and Unnamed (Grosset/Putnam, 1994);
229. Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "Contract vs. Charity: Why Is There No Social Citizenship in the United States?" in The Citizenship Debates (Gershon Shafir, ed., Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1998).
230. William E. Forbath, "Why Is This Rights Talk Different from All Other Rights Talk? Demoting the Court and Reimagining the Constitution", 46 Stan. L. Rev. 1771, 1790 (1994).
231. Kenneth L. Karst, "The Coming Crisis of Work in Constitutional Perspective," 82 Cornell L. Rev. 523, 559 (1997).
232. John Denvir, Democracy's Constitution: Claiming the Privileges of American Citizenship 50 (Univ. of Illinois Press, 2001).
233. Forbath, "Why Is This Rights Talk Different fromAll Other Rights Talk?" 5.
234. Judith Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (Yale Univ. Press, 1991).
235. Vicki Schultz, "Life's Work," 100 Colum. L. Rev. 1881 (2000).
236. J.G.A. Pocock, "The Ideal of Citizenship since Classical Times," in The Citizenship Debates 31-42 (Gershon Shafir, ed., Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1998).
237. Michael Walzer, "Citizenship," in Political Innovation and Conceptual Change (Terrence Ball, James Farr, and Russell Hanson, eds., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989).
238. Marx, "On the Jewish Question," in Karl Marx: Early Writings (Vintage, 1975).
239. Bryan Turner, Citizenship and Capitalism (Allen&Unwin, 1986);
240. Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "Civil Citizenship against Social Citizenship? On the Ideology of Contract vs. Charity," in The Condition of Citizenship (Bart van Steenbergen, ed., Sage, 1994);
241. Alice Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity:Women, Men, and the Quest for Economic Citizenship in 20th Century America (Oxford Univ. Press, 2001).
242. Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity at 283.
243. Schultz, "Life's Work." 14.
244. Carole Pateman, The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory 10 (Polity Press, 1989).
245. Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity at 12-13.
246. CareWork: Gender, Labor, and theWelfare State 3 (Madonna Harrington Meyer, ed., Routledge, 2000).
247. Linda McClain, "Contract and Care," 76 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 1403, 1437 (2001);
248. Linda McClain, "Care as a Public Value: Linking Responsibility, Resources and Republicanism," 76 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 1673, 1681 (2001);
249. Deborah Stone, "Why We Need a Care Movement," The Nation, Mar. 13, 2000, at 13, 15.
250. Seedbeds of Virtue: Sources of Competence, Character, and Citizenship in American Society (Mary Ann Glendon and David Blankenhorn, eds., Madison Books, 1995).
251. Pateman, "Equality, Difference, Subordination." 22.
252. Katharine Silbaugh, "Turning Labor into Love: Housework and the Law," 91 Nw. U. L. Rev. 1 (1996);
253. Martha M. Ertman, "Commercializing Marriage:A Proposal for Valuing Women's Work Through Premarital Security Agreements," 77 Tex. L. Rev. 17 (1998).
254. For earlier statements of this position, see essays in The Politics of Housework (Ellen Malos, ed., Schocken, 1980).
255. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (Viking, 1989);
256. Naomi R. Cahn, "Gendered Identities: Women and the Household," 44 Vill. L. Rev. 525 (1999).
257. Joan Williams, Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do about It (Oxford Univ. Press, 2000), especially chapter 3.
258. Gillian Hadfield, "Households at Work: Beyond Labor Market Policies to Remedy the Gender Gap," 82 Geo. L.J. 89 (1994).
259. See http://censtats.census.gov/cgi-bin/eeo/eeojobs.pl.
260. Ruth Milkman, Ellen Reese, and Benita Roth, "The Macrosociology of Paid Domestic Labor," 25 Work and Occupations 483-510 (Nov. 1998).
261. Judith Rollins, Between Women: Domestics and Their Employers 104 (Temple Univ. Press, 1985)
262. reprinted inWorking in the Service Society (Cameron Lynn Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni, eds., Temple Univ. Press, 1996)
263. Mary Romero, "Unraveling Privilege: Worker's Children and the Hidden Costs of Paid Childcare," 76 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 1651, 1654 (2001).
264. Grace Chang, Disposable Domestics: Immigrant Women Workers in the Global Economy 57 (South End Press, 2000)
265. Evelyn Nakono Glenn, "Cleaning Up/Kept Down: A Historical Perspective on Racial Inequality in 'Women's Work'," 43 Stan. L. Rev. 1333, 1341 (1991).
266. Milkman et al., "The Macrosociology of Paid Domestic Labor." 37.
267. Hondagneu-Sotelo, Domestica;
268. Global Woman: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy (Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russel Hochschild, eds., Metropolitan Books, 2003).
269. Iris Marion Young, "Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship," 99 Ethics 250 (1989).
270. Young, "Polity and Group Difference." 41.
271. Young, "Polity and Group Difference" at 250.
272. Mary Romero, Maid in the U.S.A. 9-17 (2d ed., Routledge, 2002).
273. "Hidden in the Home: Abuse of Domestic Workers with Special Visas in the United States," Human Rights Watch, June 2001, available at http://hrw.org.reports/2001/usadom/.
274. Bridget Anderson, Doing the DirtyWork? The Global Politics of Domestic Labor 195 (Zed Books, 2000).
275. Arlie Hochschild, "Love and Gold," in Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy 15-38 (Metropolitan Books, 2003).
276. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich, 1968) (1951);
277. Paul Johnston, "The Emergence of Transnational Citizenship among Mexican Immigrants in California," in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001);
278. Jennifer Gordon, "Let Them Vote: A Response to Owen Fiss's 'The Immigrant as Pariah,'" Boston Review (1999);
279. Linda Bosniak, "Citizenship Denationalized," 7 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 447 (2002).
280. Linda Bosniak, "The Citizenship of Aliens," Social Text 56, 29-35 (1998).
281. Hiroshi Motomura, Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States (Oxford Univ. Press, forthcoming) (continuum);
282. David A. Martin, "Reforming Asylum Adjudication: On Navigating the Coast of Bohemia," 138 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1247 (1990) (concentric circles).
283. Motomura, Americans inWaiting;
284. Martin, "Reforming Asylum Adjudication";
285. Noah Pickus, True Faith and Allegiance: Immigration and American Civic Nationalism (Princeton Univ. Press, 2005);
286. Peter H. Schuck, Citizens, Strangers and In-Betweens: Essays on Immigration and Citizenship (Westview Press, 1998).
287. Joseph Carens, "On Belonging: What We Owe to People Who Stay," Boston Rev. 16, 18 (Summer 2005)
288. T. Alexander Aleinikoff, Semblances of Sovereignty: The Constitution, The State and American Citizenship 177 (Harvard Univ. Press, 2002).
289. Rogers Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (Yale Univ. Press, 1997);
290. Kenneth L. Karst, Belonging to America: Equal Citizenship and the Constitution (Yale Univ. Press, 1989);
291. David Miller, On Nationality (Oxford Univ. Press, 1995);
292. David Miller, Citizenship and National Identity (Polity Press, 2000);
293. Michael Lind, The Next American Nation: The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution (Free Press, 1995);
294. David A. Hollinger, Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism (Basic Books, 1995);
295. Chantal Mouffe, The Democratic Paradox (Verso, 2000).
296. Samuel Scheffler, Boundaries and Allegiances: Problems of Justice and Responsibility in Liberal Thought 36, 79 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2001).
297. Henry Shue, Basic Rights: Substance, Affluence and American Foreign Policy 132 (Princeton Univ. Press, 1980).
298. For examples of the cosmopolitan justice position, see Martha Nussbaum, "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism," in For Love of Country (Joshua Cohen, ed., Beacon Press, 1996);
299. Thomas Pogge, "Introduction: Global Justice," in Global Justice (Thomas W. Pogge, ed., Blackwell, 2001);
300. Charles Beitz, "Does Global Inequality Matter?," in Global Justice (Thomas W. Pogue, ed., Blackwell, 2001);
301. Brian Barry, "Statism and Nationalism: A Cosmopolitan Critique," in Global Justice (Nomos XLI) (Ian Shapiro and Lea Brilmayer, eds., New York Univ. Press, 1999);
302. Debra Satz, "Equality of What among Whom? Thoughts on Cosmopolitanism, Statism and Nationalism," in Global Justice (Ian Shapiro and Lea Brilmayer, eds., New York Univ. Press, 1999).
303. Motomura, Americans in Waiting.
304. Fiss, "A Community of Equals" at 16.
305. Fiss, "A Community of Equals" at 16.
306. Aleinikoff, Semblances of Sovereignty at 161.
307. Smith, Civic Ideals;
308. Karst, Belonging to America.
309. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality 21, 318-19 (Basic Books, 1983).
310. Michael Walzer, "The Art of Separation," 12 Pol. Theory 328 (Aug. 1984)
311. For a comprehensive discussion of separate spheres ideology in relation to the status of women historically, see Linda K. Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," in Toward an Intellectual History of Women (Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1997).
312. Iris Marion Young, "Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citzienship," in Theorizing Citizenship (Ronald Beiner, ed., SUNY Press, 1995).
313. Kevin Johnson, "Fear of an 'Alien Nation': Race, Immigration, and Immigrants," 7 Stan. L. & Pol'y Rev. 111 (1995-1996).
314. David Cole, Enemy Aliens (The New Press, 2003).
315. Leti Volpp, "The Citizen and the Terrorist," 49 UCLA L. Rev. 1575 (2002);
316. Susan M. Akram and Maritza Karmely, "Immigration and Constitutional Consequences of Post-9/11 Policies Involving Arabs and Muslims in the United States: Is Alienage a Distinction without a Difference?" 38 U.C. Davis L. Rev. 609 (2005).
317. John Dunn, Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future 67 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979).
318. This is the crux of the argument made in Linda Bosniak, "Exclusion and Membership: The Dual Identity of the Undocumented Worker under U.S. Law," 1988 Wis. L. Rev. 955.
319. Peter Spiro, "The Citizenship Dilemma," 51 Stan. L. Rev. 597, 621-25 (1999).
320. Linda Bosniak, "Multiple Nationality and the Postnational Transformation of Citizenship," 42 Va. J. Int'l L. 979, 983-991 (2002) (reviewing literature on modes of deterritorialized nation-building).
321. Ngai, Impossible Subjects.
322. For a perceptive discussion of the process of criticism from within, see Michael Walzer, Interpretation and Social Criticism (Harvard Univ. Press, 1987), at 64-65