Disclosure of maternal HIV status to children: Considerations for research and practice in sub-Saharan Africa

Future Virology

Volumn 7, Issue 12, 2012, Pages 1159-1182

  Mkwanazi, Ntombizodumo B ^a,b   Rochat, Tamsen J ^a,c   Imrie, John ^a,b,d   Bland, Ruth M ^a,b,e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU NATAL   (South Africa)

^b UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

^c STELLENBOSCH UNIVERSITY   (South Africa)

^d UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^e UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

family interventions; HIV; HIV uninfected children; maternal HIV disclosure; maternal HIV status; pre adolescents; primary school aged children; sub Saharan Africa

Indexed keywords

AFRICA; AFRICAN AMERICAN; AGE; ANTIVIRAL THERAPY; ARTICLE; ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; BELGIUM; CANADA; CAREGIVER; CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR CHECKLIST; CLINICAL PRACTICE; COPING BEHAVIOR; DECISION MAKING; EUROPE; FEMALE; GENDER; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS PREVALENCE; INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION; MATERNAL DISEASE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MOTHER CHILD RELATION; PREGNANT WOMAN; PRIMARY SCHOOL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIAL NETWORK; SOCIAL STIGMA; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); UNITED STATES;

EID: 84871244829     PISSN: 17460794     EISSN: 17460808     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/fvl.12.109     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. UNAIDS. Global Report: UNAIDS Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic 2010. UNAIDS, Switzerland (2010).
2. McNally LM, Hadingham J, Archary D, Moodley R, Coovadia HM. HIV-exposed but uninfected children: why are they vulnerable? Vulnerable Child Youth Stud. 1(2), 139-148 (2006).
3. Herbst AJ, Cooke GS, Bärnighausen T, Kanykany A, Tanser F, Newell M-L. Adult mortality and antiretroviral treatment roll-out in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Bull. World Health Organ. 87, 754-762 (2009).
4. Ndirangu J, Newell Ml, Thorne C, Bland R. Treating HIV-infected mothers reduces under 5 years of age mortality rates to levels seen in children of HIV-uninfected mothers in rural South Africa. Antivir. Ther. 17, 81-90 (2012).
5. Filteau S. The HIV-exposed uninfected African child. Trop. Med. Int. Health 14(3), 276-287 (2009).
6. Koyanagi A, Humphrey JH, Ntozini R, et al. Morbidity among human immunodeficiency virus-exposed but uninfected, human immunodeficiency virus-infected, and human immunodeficiency virus-unexposed infants in Zimbabwe before availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 30(1), 45-51 (2011).
7. Kumwenda NI, Hoover DR, Mofenson LM, et al. Extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to reduce breast-milk HIV-1 transmission. N. Engl. J. Med. 359(2), 119-129 (2008).
8. Van Rie A, Mupuala A, Dow A. Impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic on the neurodevelopment of preschool-aged children in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Pediatrics 122(1), e123-e128 (2008).
9. Bauman LJC, Silver EJ, Hudis J, Draimin B. Behavioural problems in school-aged children of mothers with HIV/AIDS. Clin. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 7(39), 39-54 (2002).
10. Rochat TJ, Bland R, Coovadia H, Stein A, Newell M-L. Towards a family-centered approach to HIV treatment and care for HIV-exposed children, their mothers and their families in poorly resourced settings. Future Virol. 6(6), 687-696 (2011).
11. Betancourt TS, Meyers-Ohki SE, Charrow A, Hansen N. Research review: mental health and resilience in HIV/AIDS-affected children: a review of the literature and recommendations for future research. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry doi:10.1111/j.14697610.2012.02613.x (2012) (Epub ahead of print).
12. King E, De Silva M, Stein A, Patel V. Interventions for improving the psychosocial well-being of children affected by HIV and AIDS. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2, CD006733 (2009).
13. Woodring LA, Cancelli AA, Ponterotto JG, Keitel MA. A qualitative investigation of adolescents' experiences with parental HIV/AIDS. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 75(4), 658-675 (2005).
14. Murphy DA. HIV-positive mothers' disclosure of their serostatus to their young children: a review. Clin. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 13(1), 105-122 (2008).
15. Hosegood V, Floyd S, Marston M, et al. The effects of high HIV prevalence on orphanhood and living arrangements of children in Malawi, Tanzania, and South Africa. Popul. Stud. (Camb.) 61(3), 327-336 (2007).
16. Armistead L, Tannenbaum L, Forehand R, Morse E, Morse P. Disclosing HIV status: are mothers telling their children? J. Pediatr. Psychol. 26(1), 11-20 (2001).
17. Faithfull J. HIV-positive and AIDS-infected women: challenges and difficulties of mothering. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 67(1), 144-151 (1997).
18. Letteney S. Mothers disclosure of maternal HIV status to children. J. HIV/AIDS Social Services 5(1), 67-84 (2006).
19. Reyland SA, Higgins-D'alessandro A, McMahon TJ. Tell them you love them because you never know when things could change: voices of adolescents living with HIV-positive mothers. AIDS Care 14(2), 285-294 (2002).
20. Rwemisisi J, Wolff B, Coutinho A, Grosskurth H, Whitworth J. 'What if they ask how I got it?' Dilemmas of disclosing parental HIV status and testing children for HIV in Uganda. Health Policy Plan. 23(1), 36-42 (2008).
21. Tompkins TL, Henker B, Whalen CK, Axelrod J, Comer LK. Motherhood in the context of HIV infection: Reading between the numbers. Cult. Diversity Ethnic Minority Psychol. 5(3), 197-208 (1999).
22. Qiao S, Li X, Stanton B. Disclosure of parental HIV infection to children: a systematic review of global literature. AIDS Behav. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-0069-x (2011) (Epub ahead of print).
23. Nam SL, Fielding K, Avalos A, Gaolathe T, Dickinson D, Geissler PW. Discussing matters of sexual health with children: what issues relating to disclosure of parental HIV status reveal. AIDS Care 21(3), 389-395 (2009).
24. Jones D, Foster S, Zalot A, Chester C, King A. Knowledge of maternal HIV/AIDS and child adjustment: the moderating role of children's relationships with their mothers. AIDS Behav. 11(3), 409-420 (2007).
25. Murphy D, Roberts K, Hoffman D. Young children's reactions to mothers' disclosure of maternal HIV+ serostatus. J. Child. Fam. Stud. 15(1), 38-55 (2006).
26. Murphy DA, Armistead L, Marelich WD, Payne DL, Herbeck DM. Pilot trial of a disclosure intervention for HIV+ mothers: the TRACK program. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 79(2), 203-214 (2011).
27. Murphy DA, Marelich WD, Amaro H. Maternal HIV/AIDS and adolescent depression: a covariance structure analysis of the 'parents and children coping together' (PACT) model. Vulnerable Child Youth Stud. 4(1), 67-82 (2009).
28. Murphy DA, Marelich WD, Hoffman D. A longitudinal study of the impact on young children of maternal HIV serostatus disclosure. Clin. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 7(1), 55-70 (2002).
29. Murphy DA, Roberts KJ, Hoffman D. Stigma and ostracism associated with HIV/AIDS: children carrying the secret of their mothers' HIV+ serostatus J. Child. Fam. Stud. 11(2), 191-202 (2002).
30. Murphy DA, Roberts KJ, Hoffman D. Regrets and advice from mothers who have disclosed their HIV+ serostatus to their young children. J. Child. Fam. Stud. 12(3), 307-318 (2003).
31. Murphy DA, Steers WN, Dello Stritto ME. Maternal disclosure of mothers' HIV serostatus to their young children. J. Fam. Psychol. 15(3), 441-450 (2001).
32. Shaffer A, Jones DJ, Kotchick BA, Forehand R. Telling the children: disclosure of maternal HIV infection and its effects on child psychosocial adjustment. J. Child. Fam. Stud. 10(3), 301-313 (2001).
33. Armistead L, Morse E, Forehand R, Morse P, Clark L. African-American women and self-disclosure of HIV infection: rates, predictors, and relationship to depressive symptomatology. AIDS Behav. 3(3), 195-204 (1999).
34. Armistead L, Summers P, Forehand R, Morse PS, Morse E, Clark L. Understanding of HIV/AIDS among children of HIV-infected mothers: implications for prevention. Child. Health Care 28(4), 277-295 (1999).
35. Ishikawa N, Pridmore P, Carr-Hill R, Chaimuangdee K. Breaking down the wall of silence around children affected by AIDS in Thailand to support their psychosocial health. AIDS Care 22(3), 308-313 (2010).
36. Hawk ST. Disclosures of maternal HIV infection to seronegative children: a literature review. J. Social Personal Relation. 24(5), 657-673 (2007).
37. Nöstlinger C, Jonckheer T, De Belder E, et al. Families affected by HIV. Parents' and children's characteristics and disclosure to the children. AIDS Care 16(5), 641-648 (2004).
38. Åsander A-S, Björkman A, Belfrage E, Faxelid E. HIV-infected African parents living in Stockholm, Sweden: disclosure and planning for their children's future. Health Social Work 34(2), 107-115 (2009).
39. Dane B. The voices of Thai women living with HIV/AIDS. Int. Social Work 45(2), 185-204 (2002).
40. Kirshenbaum SB, Nevid JS. The specificity of maternal disclosure of HIV/AIDS in relation to children's adjustment. AIDS Educ. Prev. 14(1), 1-16 (2002).
41. Lee MB, Rotheram-Borus MJ. Parents' disclosure of HIV to their children. AIDS 16(16), 2201-2207 (2002).
42. Letteney S, Laporte HH. Deconstructing stigma: perceptions of HIV-seropositive mothers and their disclosure to children. Soc. Work Health Care 38(3), 105-123 (2004).
43. Mellins CA, Brackis-Cott E, Dolezal C, Leu CS, Valentin C, Meyer-Bahlburg HFL. Mental health of early adolescents from high-risk neighborhoods: the role of maternal HIV and other contextual, self-regulation, and family factors. J. Pediatr. Psychol. 33(10), 1065-1075 (2008).
44. Murphy DA, Marelich WD, Armistead L, Herbeck DM, Payne DL. Anxiety/stress among mothers living with HIV: effects on parenting skills and child outcomes. AIDS Care 22(12), 1449-1458 (2010).
45. Murphy DA, Marelich WD, Dello Stritto ME, Swendeman D, Witkin A. Mothers living with HIV/AIDS: mental, physical, and family functioning. AIDS Care 14(5), 633-644 (2002).
46. Pilowsky D, Sohler N, Susser E. Reasons given for disclosure of maternal HIV status to children. J. Urban Health 77(4), 723-734 (2000).
47. Rotheram-Borus MJ, Draimin BH, Reid HM, Murphy DA. The impact of illness disclosure and custody plans on adolescents whose parents live with AIDS. AIDS 11(9), 1159-1164 (1997).
48. Rotheram-Borus MJ, Lester P, Wang P-W, Shen Q. Custody plans among parents living with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 158(4), 327-332 (2004).
49. Schrimshaw EW, Siegel K. HIV-infected mothers' disclosure to their uninfected children: rates, reasons, and reactions. J. Social Personal Relation. 19(1), 19-43 (2002).
50. Simoni JM, Davis ML, Drossman JA, Weinberg BA. Mothers with HIV/AIDS and their children: disclosure and guardianship issues. Women Health 31(1), 39-54 (2000).
51. Tompkins T, Wyatt G. Child Psychosocial adjustment and parenting in families affected by maternal HIV/AIDS. J. Child Fam. Stud. 17(6), 823-838 (2008).
52. Vallerand AH, Hough E, Pittiglio L, Marvicsin D. The process of disclosing HIV serostatus between HIV-positive mothers and their HIV-negative children. AIDS Patient Care STDs 19(2), 100-109 (2005).
53. Wiener LS, Battles HB, Heilman NE. Factors associated with parents' decision to disclose their HIV diagnosis to their children. Child Welfare 77(2), 115-135 (1998).
54. Dematteo D, Harrison C, Arneson C, et al. Disclosing HIV/AIDS to children. The paths families take to truthtelling. Psychol. Health Med. 7(3), 339-356 (2002).
55. Nöstlinger C, Bartoli G, Gordillo V, Roberfroid D, Colebunders R. Children and adolescents living with HIV positive parents: emotional and behavioural problems. Vulnerable Child. Youth Stud. 1(1), 29-43 (2006).
56. Thorne C, Newell ML, Peckham CS. Disclosure of diagnosis and planning for the future in HIV-affected families in Europe. Child Care Health Dev. 26(1), 29-40 (2000).
57. Thomas B, Nyamathi A, Swaminathan S. Impact of HIV/AIDS on mothers in Southern India: a qualitative study. AIDS Behav. 13(5), 989-996 (2009).
58. Xu T, Wu Z, Rou K, Duan S, Wang H. Quality of life of children living in HIV/AIDS-affected families in rural areas in Yunnan, China. AIDS Care 22(3), 390-396 (2010).
59. Xu T, Yan Z, Rou K, et al. Disclosure of parental HIV/AIDS to children in rural China. Vulnerable Child. Youth Stud. 2(2), 100-105 (2007).
60. Zhou Y, Zhang L, Li X, Kaljee L. Do Chinese parents with HIV tell their children the truth? A qualitative preliminary study of parental HIV disclosure in China. Child Care Health Dev. 8(10), 1365-2214 (2012).
61. De Baets A, Sifovo S, Parsons R, Pazvakavambwa I. HIV disclosure and discussions about grief with Shona children: a comparison between health care workers and community members in Eastern Zimbabwe. Soc. Sci. Med. 66(2), 479-491 (2008).
62. Palin F, Armistead L, Clayton A, et al. Disclosure of maternal HIV-infection in South Africa. Description and relationship to child functioning. AIDS Behav. 13(6), 1241-1252 (2009).
63. Delaney RO, Serovich JM, Lim J-Y. Psychological differences between HIV-positive mothers who disclose to all, some, or none of their biological children. J. Marital Fam. Ther. 35(2), 175-180 (2009).
64. Armistead L, Klein K, Forehand R, Wierson M. Disclosure of parental HIV infection to children in the families of men with hemophilia: description, outcomes, and the role of family processes. J. Fam. Psychol. 11(1), 49-61 (1997).
65. Corona R, Beckett MK, Cowgill BO, et al. Do children know their parent's HIV status? Parental reports of child awareness in a nationally representative sample. Ambul. Pediatr. 6(3), 138-144 (2006).
66. Ingram D, Hutchinson SA. Double binds and the reproductive and mothering experiences of HIV-positive women. Qual. Health Res. 10(1), 117-132 (2000).
67. Mayfield Arnold E, Rice E, Flannery D, Rotheram-Borus MJ. HIV disclosure among adults living with HIV. AIDS Care 20(1), 80-92 (2008).
68. Singhal A, Howard WS. The Children of Africa Confront AIDS: From Vulnerability to Possibility. Ohio University Press, OH, USA (2003).
69. Carton B, Laband J, Sithole J. Zulu Identities: Being Zulu, Past and Present. Columbia University Press, NY, USA (2009).
70. De Cock KM, Mbori-Ngacha D, Marum E. Shadow on the continent: public health and HIV/AIDS in Africa in the 21st century. Lancet 360(9326), 67-72 (2002).
71. Qiao S, Li X, Zhao G, Zhao J, Stanton B. Secondary disclosure of parental HIV status among children affected by AIDS in Henan, China. AIDS Patient Care STDS 26(9), 546-556 (2012).
72. Kennedy D, Cowgill B, Bogart L, et al. Parents' Disclosure of their HIV infection to their children in the context of the family. AIDS Behav. 14(5), 1095-1105 (2010).
73. Brackis-Cott E, Mellins CA, Block M. Current life concerns of early adolescents and their mothers. J. Early Adolesc. 23(1), 51-77 (2003).
74. AIDS Committee on Pediatrics. Disclosure of illness status to children and adolescents with HIV infection. Pediatrics 103(1), 164-166 (1999).
75. Lesch A, Swartz L, Kagee A, et al. Paediatric HIV/AIDS disclosure. towards a developmental and process-oriented approach. AIDS Care 19(6), 811-816 (2007).
76. WHO. Guideline on HIV Disclosure Counselling for Children up to 12 years of Age. WHO, Switzerland (2011).
77. Derlega VJ, Winstead BA, Greene K, Serovich J, Elwood WN. Reasons for HIV disclosure/nondisclosure in close relationships: testing a model of HIV-disclosure decision making. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 23(6), 747-767 (2004).
78. Serovich JM. A test of two HIV disclosure theories. AIDS Educ. Prev. 13(4), 355-364 (2001).
79. Chaudoir SR, Fisher JD, Simoni JM. Understanding HIV disclosure: a review and application of the disclosure processes model. Soc. Sci. Med. 72(10), 1618-1629 (2011).
80. Wiener L, Mellins CA, Marhefka S, Battles HB. Disclosure of an HIV diagnosis to children: history, current research, and future directions. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 28(2), 155-166 (2007).
81. Ostrom RA, Serovich JM, Lim JY, Mason TL. The role of stigma in reasons for HIV disclosure and non-disclosure to children. AIDS Care 18(1), 60-65 (2006).
82. Bibace R, Walsh ME. Development of children's concepts of illness. Pediatrics 66(6), 912-917 (1980).
83. Burbach DJ, Peterson L. Children's concepts of physical illness: a review and critique of the cognitive-developmental literature. Health Psychol. 5(3), 307-325 (1986).
84. Christ GH, Christ AE. Current approaches to helping children cope with a parent's terminal illness. CA Cancer J. Clin. 56(4), 197-212 (2006).
85. Sieh DS, Meijer AM, Oort FJ, Visser-Meily JM, Van Der Leij DA. Problem behavior in children of chronically ill parents: a meta-analysis. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 13(4), 384-397 (2010).
86. Geballe SD. Guardianship as a therapeutic option. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 9(2), 407-424 (2000).
87. Nakayiwa S, Abang B, Packel L, et al. Desire for children and pregnancy risk behavior among HIV-infected men and women in Uganda. AIDS Behav. 10(4 Suppl.), S95-S104 (2006).
88. Ndlovu V. Considering childbearing in the age of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART): views of HIV-positive couples. Sahara J. 6(2), 58-68 (2009).
89. Smee N, Shetty AK, Stranix-Chibanda L, et al. Factors associated with repeat pregnancy among women in an area of high HIV prevalence in Zimbabwe. Womens Health Issues 21(3), 222-229 (2011).
90. Kennedy CE, Medley AM, Sweat MD, O'Reilly KR. Behavioural interventions for HIV positive prevention in developing countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Bull. World Health Organ. 88(8), 615-623 (2010).
91. Betancourt TS, Meyers-Ohki S, Stulac SN, Elizabeth Barrera A, Mushashi C, Beardslee WR. Nothing can defeat combined hands (Abashize hamwe ntakibananira): protective processes and resilience in Rwandan children and families affected by HIV/AIDS. Soc. Sci. Med. 73(5), 693-701 (2011).
92. Hosegood V, Preston-Whyte E, Busza J, Moitse S, Timaeus IM. Revealing the full extent of households' experiences of HIV and AIDS in rural South Africa. Soc. Sci. Med. 65(6), 1249-1259 (2007).
93. Richter L. An introduction to family-centred services for children affected by HIV and AIDS. J. Int. AIDS Soc. 13(Suppl. 2), 1-6 (2010).
94. Simpson AR, Roehlkepartain JL. Asset building in parenting practices and family life. Developmental Assets and Asset-Building Communities. Lerner RM, Benson PL (Eds). Kluwer Academic/Pleanum Publishers, NY, USA, 157-193 (2003).
95. Hill C, Hosegood V, Newell M-L. Children's care and living arrangements in a high HIV prevalence area in rural South Africa. Vulnerable Child. Youth Stud. 3(1), 65-77 (2008).
96. Institute of Medicine. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. National Academy Press, WA, USA (2001).
97. Fisher L, Weihs KL. Can addressing family relationships improve outcomes in chronic disease? Report of the national working group on family-based interventions in chronic disease. J. Fam. Pract. 49(6), 561-566 (2000).
98. Grey M. Interventions for children with diabetes and their families. Annu. Rev. Nurs. Res. 18, 149-170 (2000).
99. Mcnabb WL, Cook S, Fischer B, Quinn MT, Haas L. Dissemination of a continuing education program in diabetes to health care professionals. Diabetes Educ. 20(1), 35-40 (1994).
100. Mendez FJ, Belendez M. Effects of a behavioral intervention on treatment adherence and stress management in adolescents with IDDM. Diabetes Care 20(9), 1370-1375 (1997).
101. Tal A, Levy N, Bearman JE. Methylprednisolone therapy for acute asthma in infants and toddlers: a controlled clinical trial. Pediatrics 86(3), 350-356 (1990).
102. Fiese BH, Wamboldt FS, Anbar RD. Family asthma management routines: connections to medical adherence and quality of life. J. Pediatr. 146(2), 171-176 (2005).
103. Bartholomew LK, Czyzewski DI, Parcel GS, et al. Self-management of cystic fibrosis. Short-term outcomes of the cystic fibrosis family education program. Health Educ. Behav. 24(5), 652-666 (1997).
104. Jay SM, Elliott CH. A stress inoculation program for parents whose children are undergoing painful medical procedures. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 58(6), 799-804 (1990).
105. Kramer MS, Chalmers B, Hodnett ED, et al. Promotion of Breastfeeding Intervention Trial (PROBIT). A randomized trial in the Republic of Belarus. JAMA 285(4), 413-420 (2001).
106. WHO/UNICEF. Breastfeeding Counselling: A Training Course. Geneva: Trainer's Guide. WHO, Switzerland (1993).
107. Bland RM, Little KE, Coovadia HM, Coutsoudis A, Rollins NC, Newell ML. Intervention to promote exclusive breast-feeding for the first 6 months of life in a high HIV prevalence area. AIDS 22(7), 883-891 (2008).
108. Haider R, Ashworth A, Kabir I, Huttly SR. Effect of community-based peer counsellors on exclusive breastfeeding practices in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 356(9242), 1643-1647 (2000).
109. Tylleskär T, Jackson D, Meda N, et al. Exclusive breastfeeding promotion by peer counsellors in sub-Saharan Africa (PROMISE-EBF). A cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 378(9789), 420-427 (2011).
110. Rotheram-Borus M, Swendeman D, Lee S-J, Li L, Amani B, Nartey M. Interventions for families affected by HIV. Trans. Behav. Med. 1(2), 313-326 (2011).
111. Jaffar S, Amuron B, Foster S, et al. Rates of virological failure in patients treated in a home-based versus a facility-based HIV-care model in Jinja, southeast Uganda. A cluster-randomised equivalence trial. Lancet 374(9707), 2080-2089 (2009).
112. Selke HM, Kimaiyo S, Sidle JE, et al. Task-shifting of antiretroviral delivery from health care workers to persons living with HIV/AIDS. Clinical outcomes of a community-based program in Kenya. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 55(4), 483-490 (2010).
113. Petersen MR. Review of interventions to relieve postpartum pain from perineal trauma. MCN Am. J. Matern. Child Nurs. 36(4), 241-245 (2011).
114. Bolton P, Bass J, Neugebauer R, et al. Group interpersonal psychotherapy for depression in rural Uganda. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 289(23), 3117-3124 (2003).
115. Rahman A, Malik A, Sikander S, Roberts C, Creed F. Cognitive behaviour therapy-based intervention by community health workers for mothers with depression and their infants in rural Pakistan: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 372(9642), 902-909 (2008).
116. Patel V, Weiss HA, Chowdhary N, et al. Effectiveness of an intervention led by lay health counsellors for depressive and anxiety disorders in primary care in Goa, India (MANAS). A cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet 376(9758), 2086-2095 (2010).
117. Mcpake B, Mensah K. Task shifting in health care in resource-poor countries. Lancet 372(9642), 870-871 (2008).
118. Allison S. The Role of Families Among Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Confronting HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa Family and HIV/AIDS. Pequegnat W, Bell CC (Eds). Springer NY, USA, 173-194 (2012).
119. Ferguson L, Grant AD, Watson-Jones D, Kahawita T, Ong'ech JO, Ross DA. Linking women who test HIV-positive in pregnancy-related services to long-term HIV care and treatment services: a systematic review. Trop. Med. Int. Health 7(10), 1365-3156 (2012).
120. Murphy LM, Koranyi K, Crim L, Whited S. Disclosure, stress, and psychological adjustment among mothers affected by HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDs 13(2), 111-118 (1999).
121. Rotheram-Borus MJ, Lee MB, Gwadz M, Draimin B. An intervention for parents with AIDS and their adolescent children. Am. J. Public Health 91(8), 1294-1302 (2001).
122. Lee MB, Lester P, Rotheram-Borus MJ. The relationship between adjustment of mothers with HIV and their adolescent daughters. Clin. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 7(1), 71-84 (2002).
123. Mellins CA, Havens JF, McCaskill EO, Leu CS, Brudney K, Chesney MA. Mental health, substance use and disclosure are significantly associated with the medical treatment adherence of HIV-infected mothers. Psychol. Health Med. 7(4), 451-460 (2002).
124. Mellins CA, Kang E, Leu CS, Havens JF, Chesney MA. Longitudinal study of mental health and psychosocial predictors of medical treatment adherence in mothers living with HIV disease. AIDS Patient Care STDs 17(8), 407-416 (2003).
125. Schuster MA, Kanouse DE, Morton SC, et al. HIV-infected parents and their children in the United States. Am. J. Public Health 90(7), 1074-1081 (2000).
126. Tompkins T. Disclosure of maternal HIV status to children: to tell or not to tell that is the question. J. Child. Fam. Stud. 16(6), 773-788 (2007).
127. Brackis-Cott E, Mellins CA, Dolezal C, Spiegel D. The mental health risk of mothers and children: the role of maternal HIV infection. J. Early Adolesc. 27(1), 67-89 (2007).
128. Niebuhr VN, Hughes JR, Pollard RB. Parents with human immunodeficiency virus infection: perceptions of their children's emotional needs. Pediatrics 93(3), 421-426 (1994).
129. Forsyth BW, Damour L, Nagler S, Adnopoz J. The psychological effects of parental human immunodeficiency virus infection on uninfected children. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 150(10), 1015-1020 (1996).
130. Winstead BA, Derlega VJ, Barbee AP, Sachdev M, Antle B, Greene K. Close relationships as sources of strength or obstacles for mothers coping with HIV. J. Loss Trauma 7(3), 157-184 (2002).
131. Black BP, Miles MS. Calculating the risks and benefits of disclosure in African American women who have HIV. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal Nurs. 31(6), 688-697 (2002).
132. Forehand R, Steele R, Armistead L, Morse E, Simon P, Clark L. The family health project: psychosocial adjustment of children whose mothers are HIV infected. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 66(3), 513-520 (1998).
133. Armistead L, Forehand R. For whom the bell tolls: parenting decisions and challenges faced by mothers who are HIV seropositive. Clin. Psychol. Science Practice 2(3), 239-250 (1995).