The role of families among orphans and vulnerable children in confronting HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa

Family and HIV/AIDS: Cultural and Contextual Issues in Prevention and Treatment

Volumn 9781461404392, Issue , 2012, Pages 173-194

  Allison, Susannah ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84861479904     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0439-2_8     Document Type: Chapter

References (135)

1. Adato M, Bassett L. What is the potential of cash transfers to strengthen families affected by HIV and AIDS? A review of the evidence on impacts and key policy debates. Washington, DC: Joint Learning Initiative on Children and HIV/AIDS; 2008.
2. Ainsworth M, Filmer D. Children's Schooling: AIDS, Orphanhood, Poverty, and Gender. World Dev. 2006;34(6):1099-128.
3. Ainsworth M, Beegle K, Koda G. The impact of adult mortality and parental deaths on primary schooling in North-western Tanzania. J Dev Stud. 2005;41:412-39.
4. Andrews G, Skinner D, Zuma K. Epidemiology of health and vulnerability among children orphaned and made vulnerable by HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS Care. 2006;18(3):269-76.
5. Ankrah M. The impact of HIV/AIDS on the family and other signifi cant relationships: the African clan revisited. AIDS Care. 1993;5(1):5-22.
6. Ansell N, van Blerk L. Children's migration as a household/family strategy: coping with AIDS in Lesotho and Malawi. J South Afr Stud. 2004;30(3):673-90.
7. Ansell N, Young L. Enabling household to support successful migration of AIDS orphans in southern Africa. AIDS Care. 2004;16(1):3-10.
8. Arnab R, Serumanga-Zake A. Orphans and vulnerable children in Botswana: the impact of HIV/ AIDS. Vulnerable Children Youth Stud. 2006;1:221-9.
9. Atwine B, Cantor-Graae E, Bajunirwe F. Psychological distress among AIDS orphans in rural Uganda. Soc Sci Med. 2005;61(3):555-64.
10. Baird S, Chirwa E, McIntosh C, and Ozler B. The short-term impacts of a schooling conditional cash transfer program on the sexual behavior of young women. Health Econ. 2009 published on-line 2009
11. Barnett T, Whiteside A, Desmond C. The social and economic impact of HIV/AIDS in poor countries: a review of studies and lessons. Prog Dev Stud. 2001;1(2):151-70.
12. Bauman LJ, Foster G, Silver EJ, Berman R, Gamble I, Muchaneta L. Children caring for their ill parents with HIV/AIDS. Vulnerable Children Youth Stud. 2006;1(1):56-70.
13. Beard B. Orphan care in Malawi: current practices. J Commun Health Nurs. 2005;22(2):105-15.
14. Beegle K, De Weerdt J, Dercon S. Orphanhood and the long-term impact on children. Am J Agricult Econ. 2006;88(5):1266-77.
15. Beegle K, De Weerdt J, and Dercon S (2009) The Intergenerational Impact of the African orphans crisis: a cohort study from an HIV/AIDS affected area. Forthcoming: Int J Epidemiol (doi: 10.1093/ije/dyn197 ).
16. Bicego G, Rutstein S, Johnson K. Dimensions of the emerging orphan crisis in sub-Saharan Africa. Soc Sci Med. 2003;56:1235-47.
17. Birdthistle IJ, Floyd S, Machingura A, Mudziwapasi N, Gregson S, Glynn JR. From affected to infected? Orphanhood and HIV risk among female adolescents in urban Zimbabwe. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr. 2008;22:759-66.
18. Boris NW, Thurman TR, Snider L, Spencer E, Brown L. Infants and young children living in youth-headed households in Rwanda: implications of emerging data. Infant Ment Health J. 2006;27(6):584-602.
19. Bossou S, Gbaguidi A, Djahan Y, Kousassi H, N'zin L, and Irie B. Income-generating activities to overcome stigma and discriminization. Abstract-TUPDE102, XVII International AIDS Conference. 2008 Mexico City, Mexico.
20. Case A, Ardington C. The impact of a parental death on school outcomes: longitudinal evidence from South Africa. Demography. 2006;43(3):401-20.
21. Case A, Hosegood V, Lund F. The reach and impact of Child Support Grants: evidence from KwaZulu-Natal. Development Southern Africa. 2005;22:467-82.
22. Cluver L, Gardner F. The psychological well-being of children orphaned by AIDS in Cape Town, South Africa. Ann Gen Psychiatr. 2006;5:8.
23. Cluver L, Gardner F. Risk and protective factors for psychological well-being of children orphaned by AIDS in Cape Town: a qualitative study of children and caregivers' perspectives. AIDS Care. 2007;19(3):318-25.
24. Cluver L, Orkin M. Cumulative risk and AIDS-orphanhood: interactions of stigma, bullying, and poverty on child mental health in South Africa. Soc Sci Med. 2009;69(8):1186-93.
25. Cluver L, Gardner F, Operario D. Psychological distress amongst AIDS-orphaned children in urban South Africa. J Child Psychol Psychiatr. 2007;48:755-63.
26. Cluver L, Gardner F, Operario D. Effects of stigma and other community factors on the mental health of AIDS-orphaned children. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2008;42:410-7.
27. Cluver L, Fincham DS, Seedat S. Posttraumatic stress in AIDS-orphaned children exposed to high levels of trauma: the protective role of perceived social support. J Trauma Stress. 2009;22(2):106-12.
28. de Janvry A, Sadoulet E. Conditional cash transfer programs: are they really magic bullets? ARE Update. 2004;7(6):10.
29. de Wagt A, Connolly M. Orphans and the impact of HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. Food, Nutrition and Agriculture. 2005;34:1-9.
30. Donald D, Clacherty G. Developmental vulnerabilities and strengths of children living in childheaded households: a comparison with children in adult-headed households in equivalent impoverished communities. Afr J AIDS Res. 2005;4(1):21-8.
31. Dowdney L. Childhood bereavement following parental death. J Child Psychol Psychiatr. 2000;41:819-30.
32. Drew RS, Makufa C, Foster G. Strategies for providing care and support to children orphaned by AIDS. AIDS Care. 1998;10 Suppl 1:S9-15.
33. Earls F, Raviola GJ, Carlson M. Promoting child and adolescent mental health in the context of the HIV/AIDS pandemic with a focus on sub-Saharan Africa. J Child Psychol Psychiatr. 2007;49(3):295-312.
34. Esu-Williams E, Schenk KD, Geibel S, Motsepe J, Zulu A, Bweupe P, et al. We are no longer called club members but caregivers: involving youth in HIV and AIDS caregiving in rural Zambia. AIDS Care. 2006;18(8):888-94.
35. Evans D. The Spillover Impacts of Africa's Orphans. Rand Corporation Working Paper. (pp. 10-11). 2005 Santa Monica, CA: The Rand Corporation.
36. Evans DK, Miguel E. Orphans and schooling in Africa: a longitudinal analysis. Demography. 2007;44(1):35-57.
37. Floyd S, Crampin AC, Glynn JR, Madise N, Mwenebabu M, Mnkhondia S, et al. The social and economic impact of parental HIV on children in northern Malawi: retrospective populationbased cohort study. AIDS Care. 2007;19(6):781-90.
38. Forsyth BWC, Damour L, Nagler S, Adnopoz J. The psychological effects of parental human immunodefi ciency virus infection on uninfected children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1996;150:1015-20.
39. Foster G. Beyond education and food: psychological well-being of orphans in Africa. Acta Paediatr. 2002a;91:502-4.
40. Foster G. Supporting community efforts to assist orphans in Africa. N Eng J Med. 2002b;36:1907-10.
41. Foster G. Children who live in communities affected by AIDS. Lancet. 2006;367:700-1.
42. Foster, G, Makufa, C, Drew, R et al., Perceptions of children and community members concerning the circumstances of orphans in rural Zimbabwe. AIDS Care. 1997;9:391-405.
43. Foster, G, Shakespeare, R, Chinemana, F, et al., Orphan prevalence and extended family care in a peri-urban community in Zimbabwe. AIDS Care. 1995;7:3-17.
44. Freeman M, Nkomo N. Guardianship of orphans and vulnerable children. A survey of current and prospective South African caregivers. AIDS Care. 2006a;18(4):302-10.
45. Freeman M, Nkomo N. Assistance needed for the integration of orphaned and vulnerable children: view of South African family and community members. Sahara J. 2006b;3(3):503-9.
46. Germann SE. An exploratory study of quality of life and coping strategies of orphans living in child headed households in an urban high HIV-prevalent community in Zimbabwe, Southern Africa. Vulnerable Children Youth Stud. 2006;1(2):149-58.
47. Greener R. The Impact of HIV/AIDS on poverty and inequality. In: Haacker M, editor. The macroeconomics of HIV/AIDS. Washington, D.C: International Monetary Fund; 2004.
48. Gregson S, Waddell H, Chandiwana SK. School education and HIV control in sub-Saharan Africa: from discord to harmony? J Int Dev. 2001;13:467.
49. Gregson S, Nyamukapa CA, Garnett GP, Wambe M, Lewis JJ. HIV infection and reproductive health in teenage women orphaned and made vulnerable by AIDS in Zimbabwe. AIDS Care. 2005;17(7):785-94.
50. Hamra M, Ross MW, Orrs M, D'Agostino A. Relationship between expressed HIV/AIDS-related stigma and HIV-beliefs/knowledge and behaviour in families of HIV infected children in Kenya. Trop Med Int Health. 2006;11(4):513-27.
51. Heymann J, Earle A, Rajaraman D, Miller C, Bogen K. Extended family caring for children orphaned by AIDS: balancing essential work and caregiving in a high HIV prevalence nation. AIDS Care. 2007;19(3):337-45.
52. Howard BH, Phillips CV, Matinhure N, Goodman KJ, McCurdy SA, Johnson CA. Barriers and incentives to orphan care in a time of AIDS and economic crisis: a cross-sectional survey of caregivers in rural Zimbabwe. BMC Public Health. 2006;6(12):1-11.
53. International HIV/AIDS Alliance and HelpAge International, (2003). Forgotten families: older people as caregivers of AIDS orphans and vulnerable children. Available via: http://www.helpage. org. Cited on 21 February 2011.
54. Irwin, A., A. Adams, and A. Winter. 2009. Home Truths: Facing the Facts on Children, AIDS, and Poverty-Final Report of the Joint Learning Initiative on Children and HIV/AIDS. Boston, MA: Joint Learning Initiative on Children and HIV/AIDS (JLICA).
55. Jackson H, Kerkhoven R. Developing AIDS care in Zimbabwe: a case for residential community centres? AIDS Care. 1995;7:663-73.
56. Jacobs M, Shung-King M, Smith C, editors. South African child gauge, 2005. Cape Town, South Africa: Children's Institute, University of Capetown; 2005.
57. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and World Health Organization (WHO). AIDS epidemic update. Geneva, Switzerland: UNAIDS and WHO; 2006.
58. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2004). Children on the Brink 2004. A joint report of new orphan estimates and a framework for action. Geneva, Switzerland; New York, NY, USA; Washington, DC: UNAIDS, UNICEF, USAID.
59. Jones L. Childcare in poor urban settlements in Swaziland in an era of HIV/AIDS. Afr J AIDS Res. 2006;4:161-71.
60. Kang M, Dunbar M, Laver S, Padian N. Maternal versus paternal orphans and HIV/STI risk among adolescent girls in Zimbabwe. AIDS Care. 2008;20(2):221-4.
61. Karim AM, Magnani RJ, Morgan GT, Bond KC. Reproductive health risk and protective factors among unmarried youth in Ghana. Int Fam Plann Perspect. 2003;29:14-24.
62. Kayombo EJ, Mbwambo ZH, Massila M. Role of traditional healers in psychosocial support in caring for the orphans: a case of Dar-es Salaam City, Tanzania. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:3.
63. Kibel M, Lake L, Pendlebury S & Smith C (eds) (2010) South African Child Gauge 2009/2010 Cape Town: Children's Institute, University of Cape Town.
64. Kidman R, Petrow SE, Heymann SJ. Africa's orphan crisis: two community-based models of care. AIDS Care. 2007;19(3):326-9.
65. Kumakech E, Cantor-Graae E, Maling S, Bajunirwe F. Peer-group support intervention improves the psychosocial well-being of AIDS orphans: cluster randomized trial. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68(6):1038-43.
66. Kuo C, Operario D. Caring for AIDS-Orphaned children: a systematic review of studies on caregivers. Vulnerable Children Youth Stud. 2009;4(1):1-12.
67. Lagarde M, Haines A, Palmer N. The impact of conditional cash transfers on health outcomes and use of health services in low and middle income countries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;7(4):CD008137.
68. Levine C, Foster G, Williamson J, Levine C, Foster G, Williamson J. HIV/AIDS and its long-term impact on children. In: Foster G, Levine C, Willamson J, editors. A generation at risk: the global impact of HIV/AIDS on orphans and vulnerable children. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2005. p. 6.
69. Lloyd CB, Blanc AK. Children's schooling in sub-Saharan Africa: the role of fathers, mothers, and others. Popul Dev Rev. 1996;22(2):265-98.
70. Maclean K. The impact of institutionalization on child development. Dev Psychopathol. 2003;15:853-84.
71. Magnani RJ, Karim AM, Weiss LA, Bond KC, Lemba M, Morgan GT. Reproductive health risk and protective factors among youth in Lusaka, Zambia. J Adolesc Health. 2002;30:76-86.
72. Makame V, Ani C, Grantham-McGregor S. Psychological well-being of orphans in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Acta Pediatr. 2002;91:459-65.
73. Makaya J, Mboussou F, Bansimba T, Ndinga H, Latifou S, Ambendet A, et al. (2002). Assessment of Psychological Repercussions of AIDS next to 354 AIDS Orphans in Brazzaville, 2001. Paper presented at the XIV International AIDS Conference, Barcelona, Spain.
74. Masmas TN, Jensen H, da Silva D, Hoj L, Sandstrom A, Aaby P. The social situation of motherless children in rural and urban areas of Guinea-Bissau. Soc Sci Med. 2004;59(6):1231-9.
75. Matshalaga NR, Powell G. Mass orphanhood in the era of HIV/AIDS. Br Med J. 2002;324:185-6.
76. McNally LM, Hadingham J, Archary D, Moodley R, Coovadia HM. HIV-exposed but uninfected children: why are they vulnerable? Vulnerable Children Youth Stud. 2006;1(2):139-48.
77. Meintjes H, Moses S, Berry L, and Mampane R. (2007). Home truths: the phenomenon of residential care for children in a time of AIDS. Cape Town, South Africa: Children's Institute, University of Cape Town and Centre for the Study of AIDS, University of Pretoria.
78. Mermin J, Were W, Edwaru JP, Moore D, Downing R, Behumbiize P, et al. Mortality in HIVinfected Ugandan adults receiving antiretroviral treatment and survival of their HIV-uninfected children: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2008;371:752-9.
79. Miller CM, Gruskin S, Subramanian SV, Rajaraman D, Heymann J. Orphan care in Botswana's working households: growing responsibilities in the absence of adequate support. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:1429-35.
80. Mishra V, Assche B-V. Orphans and vulnerable children in High HIV-prevalence countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, DHS analytical studies 15. Washington, DC: USAID; 2008.
81. Mishra V, Arnold F, Otieno F, Cross A, Hong R. Education and nutritional status of orphans and children of HIV-infected parents in Kenya. AIDS Educ Prev. 2007;19(5):383-95.
82. Monasch R, Boerma JT. Orphanhood and childcare patterns in sub-Saharan Africa: an analysis of national surveys from 40 countries. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr. 2004;18 Suppl 2:55-65.
83. Newell ML, Brahmbhatt H, Ghys PD. Child mortality and HIV infection in Africa: a review. J Acqiur Immune Def Syndr. 2004;18 Suppl 2:S27-34.
84. Ngom P, Magadi MA, Owuor T. Parental presence and adolescent reproductive health among the Nairobi urban poor. J Adolesc Health. 2003;33:369-77.
85. Nicoll A, Gill ON. The global impact of HIV infection and disease. Comm Dis Public Health. 1999;2:85-95.
86. Nyambedha E. O. "Change and Continuity in Kin-based Support Systems for Widows and Orphans Among the Luo in Western Kenya", African Sociological Review. 2004;Vol. 8 (1): 139-154.
87. Nyamukapa C, Gregson S. Extended family's and women's roles in safeguarding orphans' education in AIDS-affl icted rural Zimbabwe. Soc Sci Med. 2005;60(10):2155-67.
88. Nyangara F, Obiero W, Kalungwa Z, Thurman TR. Community-based psychosocial intervention for HIV-affected children and their caregivers: evaluation of the Salvation Army's Mam Mkubwa Program in Tanzania. 2009. Available at http://www.cpc.unc.edu/measure/publications/pdf/ sr-09-50.pdf.
89. Nyamukapa C, Foster G, Gregson S. Orphans' household circumstances and access to education in a maturing HIV epidemic in eastern Zimbabwe. J Soc Dev Africa. 2003;18:7-32.
90. Oburu PO, Palmerus K. Parenting stress and self-reported discipline strategies of Kenyan caregiving grandmothers. Int J Behav Dev. 2003;27:505-12.
91. Odjo F, Azondekon A, Adeyandju I, Monzorgui A, Ketichion A, Sagui A, et al. (2008). Management of HIV children psychological conditions in resource constrained settings: what can be gained? Abstract WEAD0104, XVII, International AIDS Conference, Mexico City, Mexico.
92. Oleke C, Blystad A, Rekdal OB. When obvious brother is not there: political and cultural contexts of the orphan challenge in Northern Uganda. Soc Sci Med. 2005;61:2628-38.
93. Oleke C, Blystand A, Fylkesnes K, Turnwine JK. Constraints to educational opportunities of orphans: a community-based study from northern Uganda. AIDS Care. 2007;19(3):361-8.
94. Omigbodun O. Developing child mental health services in resource-poor countries. Int Rev Psychiatr. 2008;20(3):225-35.
95. Operario D, Pettifor A, Cluver L, MacPhail C, Rees H. Prevalence of parental death among young people in South Africa and risk for HIV infection. J Acquir Immine Def Syndr. 2007;44(1):93-8.
96. Pillay AL, Lockhat MR. Developing community mental health services for children in South Africa. Soc Sci Med. 1997;45(10):1493-501.
97. Richter LM, Desmond C. Targeting AIDS orphans and child-headed households? A perspective from national surveys in South Africa, 1995-2005. AIDS Care. 2008;18:1-10.
98. Rosenberg A, Hartwig K, Merson M. Government-NGO collaboration and sustainability of orphans and vulnerable children projects in southern Africa. Evaluat Prog Plann. 2008;31:51-60.
99. Rotheram-Borus MJ, Leonard NR, Lightfoot M, Franzke LH, Tottenham N, Lee SJ. Picking up the pieces: caregivers of adolescents bereaved by parental AIDS. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatr. 2002;1:115-24.
100. Sarker M, Neckermann C, Muller O. Assessing the health status of young AIDS and other orphans in Kampala, Uganda. Trop Med Int Health. 2005;10(3):210-5.
101. Schenk KD, Ndhlovu L, Tembo S, Nsune A, Nkhata C, Walusidku B, et al. Supporting orphans and vulnerable children affected by AIDS: using community-generated defi nitions to explore patters of children's vulnerability in Zambia. AIDS Care. 2008;20(8):894-903.
102. Schroeder EA, Nichola T. The adoption of HIV/AIDS orphans and food security in rural Ingwavuma, South Africa. Int J Technol Sustain Dev. 2005;5(2):173-87.
103. Schubert B, Webb D, Temin M, and Masabane P (2007). The impact of social cash transfers on children affected by HIV and AIDS: evidence from Zambia, Malawi, and South. UNICEF/ ESARO.
104. Schultz TP. School subsidies for the poor: evaluating the Mexican Progresa Poverty Program. J Dev Econ. 2004;7(Suppl):105-24.
105. Senefeld S, Farmer M, Ahmed S, and Lee C Food and nutrition security of orphans and vulnerable children: Programatic implications resulting from a fi ve-country evaluation Abstract WEPE0624, XVII International AIDS Conference 2008 Mexico City, Mexico.
106. Sengendo J, Nambi J. The psychological effect of orphanhood: a study of orphans in Rakai district. Health Transit Rev. 1997;7 Suppl 1:105-24.
107. Sheridan M, Drury S, McLaughlin K, Almas A. Early institutionalization: neurobiological consequences and genetic modifi ers. Neuropsychol Rev. 2010;20(4):414-29.
108. Sherraden M. Stakeholding: notes in a theory of welfare based on assets. Soc Ser Rev. 1990;64(4):580-601.
109. Ssewamala FM, Ismayilova L. Integrating children's savings accounts in the care and support of orphaned adolescents in rural Uganda. Soc Ser Rev. 2009;83(3):453-72.
110. Ssewamala FM, Alicea S, Bannon WM, Ismayilova L. A novel economic intervention to reduce HIV risks among school-going AIDS orphans in rural Uganda. J Adolesc Health. 2008a;42:102-4.
111. Ssewamala FM, Han C-K, Neilands TB, Ismayilova L, Sperber E. Effect of economic assets on sexual risk-taking intentions among orphaned adolescents in Uganda. Am J Public Health. 2008b;100:483-8.
112. Ssewamala F, Han CH, Neilands T. Asset-ownership and health and mental health functioning among AIDS-orphaned adolescents: fi ndings from a randomized clinical trial in rural Uganda. Soc Sci Med. 2009;69:191-8.
113. Sssengonzi R. The plight of older persons as caregivers to people infected/affected by HIV/AIDS: evidence from Uganda. J Cross Cult Gerontol. 2007;22(4):339-53.
114. Taoka S, Baggaley R, Hughes K, Ndondoo E, Masila N, Wambua N (2008) Do Savings and Loans Associations (SLAs) improve diets and nutritional status of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC)? Abstract TUPE0661, XVII International AIDS Conference, Mexico City, Mexico.
115. Thurman TR, Snider L, Boris N, Kalisa E, Murguria E, Ntaginira J, et al. Psychosocial support and marginalization of youth-headed households in Rwanda. AIDS Care. 2006a;18(3):220-9.
116. Thurman TR, Brown L, Richter LM, Maharaj P, Magnani R. Sexual risk behavior among adolescents in South Africa: is orphan status a factor? AIDS Behav. 2006b;10(6):627-35.
117. Thurman TR, Snider LA, Boris NW, Kalisa E, Nyirazinyoye L, Brown L. Barriers to the community support of orphans and vulnerable youth in Rwanda. Soc Sci Med. 2008;66(7):1557-67.
118. Timaeus IM, Boler T. Father fi gures: the progress of orphans in South Africa. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr. 2007;7 Suppl 7:S83-93.
119. Townsend L, Dawes A. Willingness to care for children orphaned by HIV/AIDS: a study of foster and adoptive parents. Afr J AIDS Res. 2004;3:69-80.
120. Townsend L, Dawes A. Intentions to care for children orphaned by HIV/AIDS: a test of the theory of planned behavior. J Appl Soc Psychol. 2007;37(4):822-43.
121. UNAIDS. (2004). AIDS Epidemic Update 2004. Geneva, Switzerland: Joint United Nat i ons Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and World Health Organization (WHO). Available via: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/unaids/2004/9291733903.pdf. Cited 14 March 2011.
122. UNAIDS. (2006). AIDS Epidemic Update 2006. Geneva, Switzerland: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Available via: http://data.unaids.org/pub/epireport/ 2006/2006-epiupdate-en.pdf. Cited 18 March 2011.
123. UNAIDS. (2008). AIDS Epidemic Update 2008: Executive Summary. Geneva, Switzerland: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) http://data.unaids.org/pub/GlobalReport/ 2008/jc1511-gr08-executivesummary-en.pdf. Cited 18 March 2011.
124. UNICEF. Africa's orphaned and vulnerable generations. Children affected by AIDS. New York: UNICEF; 2006.
125. UNICEF & UNAIDS (2010). Children and AIDS: Fifth Stocktaking Report, 2010 (UNICEF). Available via: http://www.unicef.org/aids/fi les/ChildrenAndAIDS-Fifth-Stocktaking-Report- 2010-EN.pdf Cited 18 March 2011.
126. Urassa M, Walraven G, and Boerma T (1997). Consequences of the AIDS epidemic for children. In HIV Prevention and AIDS Care in Africa. A District Level Approach, (337-349). In: Ng'weshemi J, Boerma T, Bennett J, and Schapink D, (eds.). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Royal Tropical Institute.
127. USAID. (2008). Third Annual Report on Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Developing Countries. Washington, D.C.: USAID. Available via: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf-docs/PDACM265.pdf. Cited 16 March 2011.
128. Wallis A, Dukay V, Mellins C. Power and empowerment: fostering effective collaboration in meeting the needs of orphans and vulnerable children. Glob Public Health. 2010;5(5):509-22.
129. Walraven G, Nicoll A, Njau M, Timaeus I. The impact of HIV-1 infection on child health in sub-Saharan Africa: the burden on the health services. Trop Med Int Health. 1996;1(1):3-14.
130. Watts H, Lopman B, Nyamukapa C, Gregson S. Rising incidence and prevalence of orphanhood in Manicaland, Zimbabwe, 1998 to 2003. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr. 2005;19(7):717-25.
131. Wood K, Chase E, Aggleton P. Telling the truth is the best thing: teenage orphans' experiences of parental AIDS-related illness and bereavement in Zimbabwe. Soc Sci Med. 2006; 63(7):1923-33.
132. Yamano T, Shimamura Y, Sserunkuuma D. Living arrangements and school of orphaned children and adolescents in Uganda. Econ Dev Cult Change. 2006;54(4):833-56.
133. Zachariah R, Teck R, et al. How can the community contribute in the fi ght against HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis? An example from a rural district in Malawi. R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2006; 100:167-75.
134. Zhan M, Sherraden M. Assets, expectations, and children's educational achievement in femaleheaded households. Soc Ser Rev. 2003;72(2):191-211.
135. Zuniga JM, Whiteside A, Ghaziani A, Bartlett JG, editors. A decade of HAART: the development and global impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2008.