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Volumn 107, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 1-68

The Brussels effect

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EID: 84870795327     PISSN: 00293571     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (436)

References (442)
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    • Charles Grant, The Unraveling of the EU, PROSPECT, July 2009, at 48, 48 "Russian, Chinese[, and] Indian policy-makers...view it as a trade bloc that had pretensions to power but has failed to realize them because it is divided and badly organised.").
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    • COMP/M.5984, Intel/McAfee, EUR-Lex 32011M5984 (Jan. 26, 2011).
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    • Council Directive 76/768/EEC, of 27 July 1976 on the Approximation of the Laws of the Member States Relating to Cosmetic Products, 1976 O.J. (L 262) 169.
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    • 84870818538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
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    • Regulation (EC) 1829/2003, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2003 on Genetically Modified Food and Feed, 2003 O.J. (L 268) 1.
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    • 84870854132 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
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    • Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union arts. 101 & 102, Mar. 30, 2010, 2010 O.J. (C 83) 47, 88-89 [hereinafter TFEU].
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    • 84870837992 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
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    • See Directive 95/46/EC, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, 1995 O.J. (L 281) 31 [hereinafter Data Protection Directive].
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    • See id.
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    • See Directive 2002/95/EC, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment, 2003 O.J. (L 37) 19 [hereinafter Directive 2002/95/EC].
  • 14
    • 84870820082 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Regulation (EC) 1907/2006, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 Concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), Establishing a European Chemicals Agency, 2007 O.J. (L 136) 3 [hereinafter REACH]; Directive 2005/84/EC, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2005 Relating to Restrictions on the Marketing and Use of Certain Dangerous Substances and Preparations (Phthalates in Toys and Childcare Articles), 2005 O.J. (L 344) 40.
  • 16
    • 84870855252 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The United States, for example, has imposed sanctions to compel other countries to adopt stricter rules in areas such as antiterrorism and drug enforcement.
  • 20
    • 84870825669 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • "[G]overnments and workers all over the world have been forced into a competition for productive investment that is most often won by scrapping or forswearing most of the laws and regulations that complicate business operations and lower short-term profits, but that also ensure that living wages are paid, that workplaces are safe, and that pollution is controlled.". For a general discussion of this dynamic.
  • 23
    • 0001929023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Race to the Bottom or Governance from the Top?
    • note
    • Debora L. Spar & David B. Yoffie, A Race to the Bottom or Governance from the Top?, in COPING WITH GLOBALIZATION 31, 31-51 (Aseem Prakash & Jeffrey A. Hart eds., 2000).
    • (2000) COPING WITH GLOBALIZATION , vol.31 , pp. 31-51
    • Spar, D.L.1    Yoffie, D.B.2
  • 24
    • 0031504669 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Trading Up and Governing Across: Transnational Governance and Environmental Protection
    • David Vogel, Trading Up and Governing Across: Transnational Governance and Environmental Protection, 4 J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y 556, 563 (1997).
    • (1997) J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y , vol.4 , Issue.556 , pp. 563
    • Vogel, D.1
  • 25
    • 84870776440 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vogel & Kagan, supra note 15, at 2-8.
    • Vogel1    Kagan2
  • 27
    • 33645390176 scopus 로고
    • The Future of Corporate Federalism: State Competition and the New Trend Toward De Facto Federal Minimum Standards
    • John C. Coffee Jr., The Future of Corporate Federalism: State Competition and the New Trend Toward De Facto Federal Minimum Standards, 8 CARDOZO L. REV 759, 761-763 (1987).
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    • Coffee Jr., J.C.1
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    • 84870786951 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vogel & Kagan, supra note 15, at 9.
    • Vogel1    Kagan2
  • 30
    • 84870793723 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For an example of a California regulation that prompted firms to adopt the California standard and alter their production nationwide, see Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE §§ 25249.5-.13 (West 2006) (on labeling requirements in the presence of carcinogenic or reproductive toxins in consumer products or food).
  • 31
    • 84870852137 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vogel, supra note 16, at 562.
  • 32
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    • note
    • See generally VOGEL, supra note 18 (discussing a similar phenomenon in federal systems).
  • 34
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    • When the WTO Works, and How It Fails
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    • Anu Bradford, When the WTO Works, and How It Fails, 51 VA. J. INT'L L. 1 (2010) (discussing the WTO's failure to facilitate global cooperation on antitrust issues).
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    • Globalization, Harmonization, and Competition: The Different Pathways to Policy Convergence
    • Daniel W. Drezner, Globalization, Harmonization, and Competition: The Different Pathways to Policy Convergence, 12 J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y 841, 841-859 (2005).
    • (2005) J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y , vol.12 , Issue.841 , pp. 841-859
    • Drezner, D.W.1
  • 36
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    • The International Politics of Harmonization: The Case of Capital Market Regulation
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    • Beth Simmons, The International Politics of Harmonization: The Case of Capital Market Regulation, in DYNAMICS OF REGULATORY CHANGE, supra note 15, at 42, 50-52.
    • DYNAMICS of REGULATORY CHANGE , pp. 50-52
    • Simmons, B.1
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    • Vogel & Kagan, supra note 15, at 6, 9.
    • Vogel1    Kagan2
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    • See VOGEL, supra note 18.
  • 39
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    • Katharina Holzinger & Thomas Sommerer, 'Race to the Bottom' or 'Race to Brussels'?: Environmental Competition in Europe, 49 J. COMMON MARKET STUD. 315, 329 (2011) (concluding that empirical evidence demonstrates a "far-reaching upward trend in environmental regulation from the 1970s until today").
    • (2011) J. COMMON MARKET STUD , vol.49 , Issue.315 , pp. 329
    • Holzinger, K.1    Sommerer, T.2
  • 40
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    • Vogel & Kagan, supra note 15, at 10.
    • Vogel1    Kagan2
  • 41
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    • Fritz W. Scharpf, Negative and Positive Integration in the Political Economy of European Welfare States, in GOVERNANCE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION 15, 28-29 (Gary Marks et al. eds., 1996).
    • (1996) GOVERNANCE IN the EUROPEAN UNION , vol.15 , pp. 28-29
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    • The Race to Laxity and the Race to Undesirability: Explaining Failures in Competition Among Jurisdictions in Environmental Law
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    • Peter P. Swire, The Race to Laxity and the Race to Undesirability: Explaining Failures in Competition Among Jurisdictions in Environmental Law, 14 YALE L. & POL'Y REV. 67, 67-110 (1996) (discussing regulatory-regime exportation in the context of environmental protection).
    • (1996) YALE L. & POL'Y REV , vol.14 , Issue.67 , pp. 67-110
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    • Jonathan R. Macey, Regulatory Globalization as a Response to Regulatory Competition, 52 EMORY L.J. 1353, 1359, 1361 (2003) (arguing that regulatory globalization does not take place in the area of consumer protection, where regulators are assumed to have complete autonomy to regulate their domestic markets).
    • (2003) EMORY L.J , vol.52 , Issue.1353 , pp. 1359
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  • 44
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    • note
    • John Braithwaite & Peter Drahos, GLOBAL BUSINESS REGULATION 518-519 (2000) (discussing both race to the bottom (RTB) and race to the top (RTT), and arguing that RTT is a result of countries adopting as "best practices" those that they consider to be in their interest).
    • (2000) GLOBAL BUSINESS REGULATION , pp. 518-519
    • Braithwaite, J.1    Drahos, P.2
  • 45
    • 84870829759 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
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    • Simmons, supra note 23 (canvassing research focusing on conditions under which other regulators have the incentive to adjust); Vogel & Kagan, supra note 15, at 14 (focusing on de jure trading up as the foreign country switches its standards as a result of RTT).
  • 46
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    • See Drezner, supra note 23, at 841.
  • 47
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    • Id. at 850.
  • 48
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    • Simmons, supra note 23, at 49.
  • 50
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    • note
    • Gruber contests the positive-sum models of international cooperation and explains why states join institutions that are not Pareto-improving for them. When states that win from some cooperative arrangement are in a position to proceed even without the support of the losing states, losing states' interest calculation changes and they join the new institution even though they would have preferred that such an institution was never set up in the first place. A movement or change that is Pareto-improving is one that makes at least one participant better off without making any participant worse off.
  • 51
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    • GDP Now Matters More than Force: A U.S. Foreign Policy for the Age of Economic Power
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    • Leslie H. Gelb, GDP Now Matters More than Force: A U.S. Foreign Policy for the Age of Economic Power, FOREIGN AFF., Nov./Dec. 2010, at 35.
    • FOREIGN AFF , pp. 35
    • Gelb, L.H.1
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    • Drezner, supra note 23, at 847 ("[uscourts.gov/uscourts/Statisticsasonable conjecture would be to say that the public good benefits from regulatory coordination depend upon the size of the newly opened market.").
  • 53
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    • The EU's New Impact on U.S. Environmental Regulation
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    • David A. Wirth, The EU's New Impact on U.S. Environmental Regulation, 31 FLETCHER F. WORLD AFF. 91, 96 (2007) ("If [a] jurisdiction's market share is sufficiently large, [its] regulatory requirements can affect an even larger area, including those under the control of other sovereign authorities.").
    • (2007) FLETCHER F. WORLD AFF , vol.31 , Issue.91 , pp. 96
    • Wirth, D.A.1
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    • note
    • Drezner, supra note 23, at 843.
  • 55
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    • note
    • See id.
  • 56
    • 84870798757 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vogel & Kagan, supra note 15, at 13
    • Vogel1    Kagan2
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    • 77649201108 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • European Union, CIA WORLD FACTBOOK, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/ee.html (last visited Nov. 5, 2012).
    • CIA WORLD FACTBOOK
  • 60
    • 84870845984 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See id.
  • 61
    • 3042765050 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • WORLD TRADE ORG., WORLD TRADE REPORT 25 (2011), available at http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/world_trade_report11_e.pdf.
    • (2011) WORLD TRADE REPORT , pp. 25
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    • United States, CIA WORLD FACTBOOK, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/us.html (last visited Nov. 5, 2012).
    • CIA WORLD FACTBOOK
  • 63
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    • China, CIA WORLD FACTBOOK, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html (last visited Nov. 5, 2012).
    • CIA WORLD FACTBOOK
  • 64
    • 77649201108 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
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    • Japan, CIA WORLD FACTBOOK, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html (last visited Nov. 5, 2012).
    • CIA WORLD FACTBOOK
  • 65
    • 84870833499 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The GDP figures are PPP-based.
  • 66
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    • Political Transfer and "Trading Up"? Transatlantic Trade in Genetically Modified Food and U.S. Politics
    • Alasdair R. Young, Political Transfer and "Trading Up"? Transatlantic Trade in Genetically Modified Food and U.S. Politics, 55 WORLD POL. 457, 459 (2003).
    • (2003) WORLD POL , vol.55 , Issue.457 , pp. 459
    • Young, A.R.1
  • 67
    • 84870775940 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The EU's population exceeds 500 million, and its GDP per capita is approximately $34,000. European Union, supra note 40. The United States is relatively more affluent (GDP per capita of $48,100), but its consumer market is smaller (population of 313 million). United States, supra note 43. China, on the other hand, has a larger consumer market (population of 1.3 billion), but is relatively less affluent (GDP per capita of $8,400). China, supra note 43.
  • 68
    • 34548536808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The European Regulatory State and Global Public Policy: Micro-Institutions, Macro-Influence
    • David Bach & Abraham L. Newman, The European Regulatory State and Global Public Policy: Micro-Institutions, Macro-Influence, 14 J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y 827, 831 (2007).
    • (2007) J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y , vol.14 , Issue.827 , pp. 831
    • Bach, D.1    Newman, A.L.2
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    • note
    • See id. at 832.
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    • note
    • Colin Kirkpatrick & David Parker, Infrastructure Regulation: Models for Developing Asia 40-41 (Asian Dev. Bank Inst. Discussion Paper No. 6, 2004), available at http://www.adbi.org/files/2004.05.06.dp006.infrastructure.asia.pdf (describing the difficulties developing countries face in implementing an effective regulatory regime, including an economy's "institutional endowment").
    • (2004) Infrastructure Regulation: Models For Developing Asia 40-41
    • Kirkpatrick, C.1    Parker, D.2
  • 71
    • 84870791927 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For instance, China adopted a domestic antitrust law in 2008, vesting the authority to enforce the law among three different agencies.
  • 72
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    • Highlights of China's New Anti-Monopoly Law
    • Xiaoye Wang, Highlights of China's New Anti-Monopoly Law, 75 ANTITRUST L.J. 133, 145 (2008).
    • (2008) ANTITRUST L.J , vol.75 , Issue.133 , pp. 145
    • Wang, X.1
  • 73
    • 84870845885 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Prior to 2008, China had no capacity to exercise regulatory power in antitrust matters. Still, even after enacting the law and creating an institutional structure to enforce the law, it will be a while before the regulatory clout of the new agencies will match that of the United States (which has been enforcing antitrust laws since 1890) and the EU (which has been enforcing antitrust laws since 1957). Sherman Antitrust Act, ch. 647, 26 Stat. 209 (1890) (codified as amended at 15 U.S.C. §§ 1-7 (2006)); Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community (Treaty of Rome) arts. 85, 86, Mar. 25, 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11.
  • 74
    • 33746623701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The European Union as a Conflicted Trade Power
    • Sophie Meunier & Kalypso Nicolaïdis, The European Union as a Conflicted Trade Power, 13 J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y 906, 907-08 (2006).
    • (2006) J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y , vol.13 , Issue.906 , pp. 907-908
    • Meunier, S.1    Nicolaïdis, K.2
  • 75
    • 84937307131 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Rise of the Regulatory State in Europe
    • note
    • Giandomenico Majone, The Rise of the Regulatory State in Europe, W. EUR. POL., July 1994, at 77, 83-101.
    • W. EUR. POL , pp. 83-101
    • Majone, G.1
  • 76
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    • note
    • Margot Horspool & Matthew Humphreys, EUROPEAN UNION LAW 39-70 (6th ed. 2010) (providing an overview of the various institutions of the European Union).
    • (2010) EUROPEAN UNION LAW , pp. 39-70
    • Horspool, M.1    Humphreys, M.2
  • 77
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    • note
    • COUNCIL EUR. UNION, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/homepage.aspx?lang=en (last visited Nov. 5, 2012).
  • 78
    • 84870817618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • EUR. COMMISSION, http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm (last visited Nov. 5, 2012).
  • 79
    • 84870837637 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • EUR. PARLIAMENT, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/portal/en (last visited Nov. 5, 2012).
  • 80
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    • note
    • See, e.g., Single European Act art. 6, Feb. 17, 1986, 1987 O.J. (L 169) 1 (granting the European Parliament a cooperative role in regulating Europe's economy and implementing qualified majority voting); Treaty on European Union art. G, Feb. 7, 1992, 1992 O.J. (C 191) 1, 5-44 (same); Treaty of Lisbon Amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty Establishing the European Community, Dec. 13, 2007, 2007 O.J. (C 306) 1 [hereinafter Treaty of Lisbon] (same).
  • 81
    • 84870820805 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Compare TFEU arts. 3-4 (listing the exclusive and shared competences of the EU, respectively), with id. art. 6 (describing competences that are reserved to the member states and where the EU's role is merely supportive).
  • 82
    • 0033035646 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Costs and Benefits of Regulation: Implications for Developing Countries
    • J. Luis Guasch & Robert W. Hahn, The Costs and Benefits of Regulation: Implications for Developing Countries, 14 WORLD BANK RES. OBSERVER 137, 138 (1999).
    • (1999) WORLD BANK RES. OBSERVER , vol.14 , Issue.137 , pp. 138
    • Luis, G.J.1    Hahn, R.W.2
  • 83
    • 0035720963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Changing Character of Regulation: A Comparison of Europe and the United States
    • Ragnar E. Löfstedt & David Vogel, The Changing Character of Regulation: A Comparison of Europe and the United States, 21 RISK ANALYSIS 399, 400-401 (2001).
    • (2001) RISK ANALYSIS , vol.21 , Issue.399 , pp. 400-401
    • Löfstedt, R.E.1    Vogel, D.2
  • 84
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    • note
    • Zaki Laïdi, The Unintended Consequences of European Power 8 (Les Cahiers Européens de Sciences Po. No. 5, 2007), available at http://www.cee.sciences-po.fr/erpa/docs/wp_2007_5.pdf ("Up to [the late 1980s], it was the United States that set the norms since theirs were the strictest. Since then the roles have been reversed.").
    • (2007) The Unintended Consequences of European Power , pp. 8
    • Laïdi, Z.1
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    • note
    • R. Daniel Keleman & David Vogel, Trading Places: The US and the EU in International Environmental Politics 1-2 & tbl.1 (Sept. 2007) (unpublished manuscript), available at http://www.princeton.edu/~smeunier/kelemen%20vogel%20trading%20places%20sept%2007.pdf (describing how the EU's and United States' respective regulatory preferences have switched over time).
    • Trading Places: The US and The EU In International Environmental Politics , pp. 1-2
    • Daniel, K.R.1    Vogel, D.2
  • 86
    • 84870775206 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The EU's commitment to the social market economy is explicitly mentioned as a common objective for Europe, added by Article 1 of the new Lisbon Treaty. Treaty of Lisbon art. 1(4) ("[The Union] shall work for the sustainable development of Europe based on balanced economic growth and price stability, a highly competitive social market economy,...and a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the environment.").
  • 87
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    • note
    • See Laïdi, supra note 56, at 8.
  • 88
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    • note
    • EUROPEAN COMM'N, SPECIAL EUROBAROMETER 217: THE ATTITUDES OF EUROPEAN CITIZENS TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT 31-32 (2005), available at http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_217_en.pdf (noting that close to 90% of Europeans believe environmental policies are just as important as social or economic ones).
    • (2005) SPECIAL EUROBAROMETER 217: The ATTITUDES of EUROPEAN CITIZENS TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT , pp. 31-32
  • 91
    • 84870788588 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Beyond "REACH"?: An Analysis of the European Union's Chemical Regulation Program Under World Trade Organization Agreements
    • note
    • Sarah Harrell, Beyond "REACH"?: An Analysis of the European Union's Chemical Regulation Program Under World Trade Organization Agreements, 24 WIS. INT'L L.J. 471, 481-489 (2007) (contrasting the United States' "strict risk-assessment approach" with Europe's "precautionary principle").
    • (2007) WIS. INT'L L.J , vol.24 , Issue.471 , pp. 481-489
    • Harrell, S.1
  • 92
    • 84870857683 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • However, purely hypothetical risk is not sufficient grounds for regulatory intervention. See Case T-13/99, Pfizer Animal Health SA v. Council, 2002 E.C.R. II-3318, para. 142.
  • 93
    • 84870771454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Indus. Union Dep't, AFL-CIO v. Am. Petroleum Inst. (The Benzene Case), 448 U.S. 607, 642-46 (1980); see also Exec. Order No. 13,563, 3 C.F.R. 215, 215 (2011) (laying out general principles for regulation in the United States, including reliance on the "least burdensome tools for achieving regulatory ends").
  • 94
    • 84870787914 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See 3 C.F.R. 215.
  • 95
    • 84870775439 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • However, there are examples of regulatory areas where the United States prefers a stricter rule. For instance, the United States is more concerned than the EU is about the adverse effects of smoking.
  • 97
    • 84870843542 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See also infra text accompanying notes 292-94 (discussing U.S. financial regulation).
  • 98
    • 84870796286 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • International capital mobility is contingent on numerous factors and assumes limited exchange controls and the ability of foreign corporations and individuals to engage in foreign direct investment (FDI) and invest in foreign stock markets. See also infra note 294 (discussing whether stock exchange listings are indeed elastic).
  • 99
    • 84870820687 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In the wake of the financial crises in the Eurozone, the Commission has proposed to impose a financial transaction tax. However, the U.K., among others, is vehemently opposed.
  • 100
  • 101
    • 84870771699 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See also infra notes 295-96 (discussing the limits of the Brussels Effect in case of elastic targets including financial transactions).
  • 102
    • 84870840429 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Drezner, supra note 23, at 844-45.
  • 103
    • 0040620484 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Regulatory Interdependence and International Governance
    • David Lazer, Regulatory Interdependence and International Governance, 8 J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y 474, 476-478 (2001).
    • (2001) J. EUR. PUB. POL'Y , vol.8 , Issue.474 , pp. 476-478
    • Lazer, D.1
  • 104
    • 84870811517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • VOGEL, supra note 59, at 16.
  • 106
    • 84870785154 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EU Tells Search Engines to Stop Creating Tracking Databases
    • note
    • Ryan Singel, EU Tells Search Engines to Stop Creating Tracking Databases, WIRED (Apr. 8, 2008, 9:25 AM), http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2008/04/eu-tells-search/ (discussing how EU privacy rules on search engines' data retention practices extend to the United States "due to technical difficulty of determining whether a particular user is or isn't a citizen of an EU country").
    • WIRED
    • Singel, R.1
  • 107
    • 84870837756 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • REACH, supra note 10, arts. 5-7.
  • 108
    • 84870832917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See infra notes 134-38.
  • 110
    • 84870824684 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In such a case, a consumer with a minority taste will receive no product. The ability to tip the market in your favor is therefore the only way to ensure that products that you value are being produced.
  • 112
    • 73949137167 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Trade-Based Diffusion of Labor Rights: A Panel Study, 1986-2002
    • Brian Greenhill et al., Trade-Based Diffusion of Labor Rights: A Panel Study, 1986-2002, 103 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 669, 678-680 (2009).
    • (2009) AM. POL. SCI. REV , vol.103 , Issue.669 , pp. 678-680
    • Greenhill, B.1
  • 113
    • 84870822823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bradford, supra note 68, at 310.
  • 114
    • 84870835074 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id.
  • 115
    • 84870814644 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 309.
  • 116
    • 84870847315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Introduction: Antitrust in the U.S. and the EU-Converging or Diverging Paths?
    • Gunnar Niels & Adriaan ten Kate, Introduction: Antitrust in the U.S. and the EU-Converging or Diverging Paths?, 49 ANTITRUST BULL. 1, 11-15 (2004).
    • (2004) ANTITRUST BULL , vol.49 , Issue.1 , pp. 11-15
    • Niels, G.1    ten Kate, A.2
  • 118
    • 84870826584 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Commission Decision of 3 July 2001 Declaring a Concentration to be Incompatible with the Common Market and the EEA Agreement, Case COMP/M.2220-General Electric/Honeywell, 2004 O.J. (L 48) 1. In contrast, for the position of U.S. regulatory authorities.
  • 120
    • 84870800475 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Note that not all antitrust decisions are characterized by nondivisibility. For instance, a company may be able to retain different distribution systems in different markets. Thus, if the EU bans certain vertical agreements between a manufacturer and its dealer, the manufacturer can often hold onto a similar arrangement in another jurisdiction. See also infra note 300 (noting Microsoft's decision to offer an unbundled product only in the EU as an example of divisibility).
  • 121
    • 84870835042 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Bradford, supra note 68, at 299.
  • 122
    • 84857099666 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • GE/Honeywell: The U.S. Merger that Europe Stopped-A Story of the Politics of Convergence
    • note
    • Eleanor M. Fox, GE/Honeywell: The U.S. Merger that Europe Stopped-A Story of the Politics of Convergence, in ANTITRUST STORIES 331, 339-340 (Eleanor M. Fox & Daniel A. Crane eds., 2007) (describing the concerns motivating EU antitrust regulators in the case).
    • (2007) ANTITRUST STORIES , vol.331 , pp. 339-340
    • Fox, E.M.1
  • 123
    • 84870788524 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For instance, see the EU's decision to block the acquisition of De Havilland by the Avions de Transport Régional, which had been approved by the Canadian authorities. Commission Decision of 2 October 1991 Declaring the Incompatibility with the Common Market of a Concentration, Case IV/M.053-Aerospatiale-Alenia/de Havilland, 1991 O.J. (L 334) 42.
  • 124
    • 84870790962 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Boeing Co. et al., Joint Statement Closing Investigation of the Proposed Merger, 5 Trade Reg. Rep. (CCH) ¶ 24,295 (July 1, 1997).
  • 125
    • 84870830375 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Commission Decision of 30 July 1997 Declaring a Concentration Compatible with the Common Market and the Functioning of the EEA Agreement, Case No. IV/M.877-Boeing/McDonnell Douglas, 1997 O.J. (L 336) 16, 36-38.
  • 126
    • 0035580435 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Transatlantic Turbulence: The Boeing-McDonnell Douglas Merger and International Competition Policy
    • note
    • William E. Kovacic, Transatlantic Turbulence: The Boeing-McDonnell Douglas Merger and International Competition Policy, 68 ANTITRUST L.J. 805, 838-839 (2001) (discussing commitments).
    • (2001) ANTITRUST L.J , vol.68 , Issue.805 , pp. 838-839
    • Kovacic, W.E.1
  • 127
    • 84870796327 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • E.g., Summary of Commission Decision of 13 May 2009, Case COMP/C-3/37.990-Intel, 2009 O.J. (C 227) 13, 17; Commission Decision of 24 May 2004, Case COMP/C-3/37.792-Microsoft, 2007 O.J. (L 32) 23, 27-28.
  • 129
    • 84873245209 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Europe v. U.S. Business
    • note
    • Editorial, Europe v. U.S. Business, WALL ST. J., Jan. 17, 2008, at A16.
    • WALL ST. J
  • 130
    • 84870821200 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Commission Decision of 22 Feb. 2006, Case COMP/B-2/38.381-De Beers, available at http://ec.europa.eu/competition/antitrust/cases/dec_docs/38381/38381_1065_1.pdf (requiring De Beers to stop buying rough diamonds from a Russian company Alrosa as a commitment in an Article 102 dominance case); Case COMP/M.5984, Intel/McAfee, EUR-Lex 32011M5984 (Jan. 26, 2011) (requiring Intel to unbundle software and security solutions worldwide as a condition for a merger); Case COMP/M.5421, Panasonic/Sanyo, EUR-Lex 32009M5421 (Sept. 29, 2009) (imposing an obligation to divest one of the parties' factories in Japan as a condition for a merger).
  • 131
    • 84870840299 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Foreign Trade Antitrust Improvements Act of 1982 (FTAIA), 15 U.S.C. § 6a (2006); United States v. Aluminum Co. of Am., 148 F.2d 416, 444 (2d Cir. 1945); Case T-102/96, Gencor Ltd v. Comm'n, 1999 E.C.R. II-759, paras. 73, 92, 96.
  • 132
    • 0034391470 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • National Law, Global Markets, and Hartford: Eyes Wide Shut
    • note
    • Eleanor M. Fox, National Law, Global Markets, and Hartford: Eyes Wide Shut, 68 ANTITRUST L.J. 73, 79-86 (2000) (describing cases of extraterritorial assertions of antitrust jurisdiction of both the EU and the United States).
    • (2000) ANTITRUST L.J , vol.68 , Issue.73 , pp. 79-86
    • Fox, E.M.1
  • 133
    • 84920750975 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Extraterritoriality, Comity, and Cooperation in EU Competition Law
    • note
    • Damien Geradin et al., Extraterritoriality, Comity, and Cooperation in EU Competition Law, in COOPERATION, COMITY, AND COMPETITION POLICY 21, 24-29 (Andrew T. Guzman ed., 2011) (describing bases of extraterritorial prescriptive and enforcement jurisdiction under EU antitrust law).
    • (2011) COOPERATION, COMITY, and COMPETITION POLICY , vol.21 , pp. 24-29
    • Geradin, D.1
  • 134
    • 84870794457 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Council Regulation (EC) 139/2004, On the Control of Concentrations Between Undertakings (the EC Merger Regulation), art. 8, 2004 O.J. (L 24) 1.
  • 135
    • 84870848167 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Kovacic, supra note 85, at 851.
  • 136
    • 84870780121 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Editorial, supra note 86.
  • 137
    • 84870818400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Majoras, supra note 78, at 14.
  • 138
    • 84870826751 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Twilight of the Idols? EU Internet Privacy and the Post Enlightenment Paradigm
    • Mark F. Kightlinger, Twilight of the Idols? EU Internet Privacy and the Post Enlightenment Paradigm, 14 COLUM. J. EUR. L. 1, 2-3 (2007).
    • (2007) COLUM. J. EUR. L , vol.14 , Issue.1 , pp. 2-3
    • Kightlinger, M.F.1
  • 139
    • 84870835615 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See id. at 21, 34. "[T]he right to privacy...is recognized both in Article 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and in the general principles of [European] Community Law." Id. at 34 (second alteration in original) (quoting Council Directive 95/46, On the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data, 1995 O.J. (L 281) 31, para. 10 [hereinafter EU Data Protection Directive]).
  • 140
    • 84870839032 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See EU Data Protection Directive, supra note 94, arts. 3, 28.
  • 141
    • 84870775956 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Privacy Act of 1974, 5 U.S.C. § 552a(4) (2006) (defining "records" protected by the Act as limited to certain categories, and limiting the application of the Act to government agencies).
  • 142
    • 0038087577 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Globalization and Social Protection: The Impact of EU and International Rules in the Ratcheting Up of U.S. Privacy Standards
    • note
    • Gregory Shaffer, Globalization and Social Protection: The Impact of EU and International Rules in the Ratcheting Up of U.S. Privacy Standards, 25 YALE J. INT'L L. 1, 23-28 (2000) (describing privacy protection in the United States, including state privacy acts).
    • (2000) YALE J. INT'L L , vol.25 , Issue.1 , pp. 23-28
    • Shaffer, G.1
  • 144
    • 84870804446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Kelly Fiveash, Euro Commissioner Tells Facebook It Has Nowhere to Hide, REGISTER (June 21, 2011, 13:03 GMT), http://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/06/21/viviane_reding_interview/ (interviewing Viviane Reding, EU Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship, on the EU-U.S. difference in approach to privacy protection).
    • Euro Commissioner Tells Facebook it Has Nowhere to Hide
    • Fiveash, K.1
  • 145
    • 84870842729 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bach & Newman, supra note 46, at 833.
  • 146
    • 84870850125 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • However, recent developments suggest that the U.S. government is moving towards a more aggressive stand in its enforcement of privacy rights.
  • 148
    • 84870777119 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bach & Newman, supra note 46, at 833.
  • 149
    • 84870775444 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See id. at 833-34.
  • 151
    • 84870798801 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Internet: Vive La Liberté!
    • note
    • The Internet: Vive La Liberté!, ECONOMIST, Nov. 25, 2000, at 75.
    • ECONOMIST , pp. 75
  • 152
    • 84870838581 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Shaffer, supra note 96, at 43 (discussing the aftermath of American Airlines being sued in Sweden after transferring data from Sweden to a U.S. electronic reservation system without prior customer consent).
  • 153
    • 84870843666 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Cecilia Kang, Promise by Google Ends FTC's Privacy-Breach Probe, WASH. POST, Oct. 28, 2010, at A15 (discussing the FTC's decision to close its investigation against Google's Street View service, in sharp contrast to European regulators).
    • Promise By Google Ends FTC's Privacy-Breach Probe
    • Kang, C.1
  • 154
    • 84870818003 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See EU Data Protection Directive, supra note 94, arts. 25; see also Shaffer, supra note 96, at 21-23 (discussing in more detail these same Directive provisions, and analyzing whether the United States, as a third-party country, would assure an adequate level of protection).
  • 155
    • 84870822536 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Shaffer, supra note 96, at 75; cf. id. at 17-20.
  • 156
    • 84870826999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Europe Plans to Tighten Web Privacy and Apply It to U.S. Companies
    • note
    • Kevin J. O'Brien, Europe Plans to Tighten Web Privacy and Apply It to U.S. Companies, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 10, 2011, at B4.
    • N.Y. TIMES
    • O'Brien, K.J.1
  • 158
    • 84870799221 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. art. 17.
  • 160
    • 84859562293 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Right to Be Forgotten
    • Jeffrey Rosen, The Right to Be Forgotten, 64 STAN. L. REV. ONLINE 88, 88 (2012).
    • (2012) STAN. L. REV. ONLINE , vol.64 , Issue.88 , pp. 88
    • Rosen, J.1
  • 161
    • 84870821802 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Issuance of Safe Harbor Principles and Transmission to European Commission, 65 Fed. Reg. 45,666 (July 24, 2000). While signing on to the Safe Harbor Principles is voluntary, the signatories are bound by them. Failure to adhere to their commitments subjects the signatories to FTC enforcement actions under § 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act against unfair or deceptive acts or practices.
  • 163
    • 84870853422 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bach & Newman, supra note 46, at 833-834.
  • 165
    • 84870787532 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bach & Newman, supra note 46, at 834.
  • 166
    • 84870775759 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Council Decision 2007/551/CFSP/JHA of 23 July 2007, on the Signing of an Agreement Between the European Union and the United States of America on the Processing and Transfer of Passenger Name Record (PNR) Data by Air Carriers to the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 2007 O.J. (L 204) 16.
  • 167
    • 84870807183 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Confusion on Internet Privacy: The Clash of Data Civilizations
    • note
    • Legal Confusion on Internet Privacy: The Clash of Data Civilizations, ECONOMIST, June 19, 2010, at 63.
    • ECONOMIST , pp. 63
  • 168
    • 84870812639 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bach & Newman, supra note 112, at 29.
  • 170
    • 84870816032 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Singel, supra note 69.
  • 171
    • 84870816245 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Mitchener, supra note 3.
  • 172
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    • note
    • See, e.g., Legal Confusion on Internet Privacy, supra note 114 (discussing changes the EU demanded in Google Buzz, the firm's social network service).
  • 173
    • 84870808418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Kevin J. O'Brien, Anger in Europe over Google and Privacy, N.Y. TIMES, May 17, 2010, at B5 (discussing personal information Google collected through Street View, and Google's response); Scheer, supra note 3 (discussing GM, DuPont, and Procter & Gamble's practice of applying EU-like standards to its employee data worldwide).
    • Anger In Europe Over Google and Privacy
    • O'Brien, K.J.1
  • 174
    • 84870799505 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EU: Microsoft Agrees to NET Passport Changes
    • note
    • Mark Berniker, EU: Microsoft Agrees to NET Passport Changes, DATAMATION (Jan. 30, 2003), http://www.datamation.com/entdev/article.php/1576901/EU-Microsoft-Agrees-to-NET-Passport-Changes.htm (discussing Microsoft's agreement with EU authorities to implement a data protection plan regarding one of its products).
    • DATAMATION
    • Berniker, M.1
  • 175
    • 84870771747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Mitchener, supra note 3 (citing Microsoft's Director of Corporate Privacy, who confirmed that Microsoft applies one company-wide privacy standard, and that is the EU standard).
  • 176
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    • note
    • REACH, supra note 10.
  • 177
    • 84870781223 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Facts & Figures of the Chemical Industry
    • note
    • Melody M. Bomgardner, Facts & Figures of the Chemical Industry, CHEMICAL & ENGINEERING NEWS, July 4, 2011, at 33-67 (describing European chemical shipments of $428.5 billion and European chemical imports worth $98.6 billion for 2010).
    • CHEMICAL & ENGINEERING NEWS , pp. 33-67
    • Bomgardner, M.M.1
  • 178
    • 84870807325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See REACH, supra note 10, art. 5.
  • 179
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    • From Brussels with Love: The Transatlantic Travels of European Law and the Chemistry of Regulatory Attraction
    • note
    • Joanne Scott, From Brussels with Love: The Transatlantic Travels of European Law and the Chemistry of Regulatory Attraction, 57 AM. J. COMP. L. 897, 898-899 (2009) (explaining the individual responsibility required for the industry actors to provide data in order to participate in the market).
    • (2009) AM. J. COMP. L , vol.57 , pp. 898-899
    • Scott, J.1
  • 180
    • 70349506126 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reaching REACH: The Challenge for Chemicals Entering International Trade
    • Doaa Abdel Motaal, Reaching REACH: The Challenge for Chemicals Entering International Trade, 12 J. INT'L ECON. L. 643, 645 (2009).
    • (2009) J. INT'L ECON. L , vol.12 , Issue.643 , pp. 645
    • Motaal, D.A.1
  • 181
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    • note
    • Scott, supra note 122.
  • 182
    • 84870810746 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Commission White Paper: Strategy for a Future Chemicals Policy, at 7-8, 28, COM (2001) 88 final (Feb. 27, 2001) (referring to the "burden of the past"-i.e., the past effects of the 30,000 chemicals already on the market in the EU-as a motivation for regulating existing chemicals).
  • 183
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    • note
    • Id. at 6.
  • 184
    • 84870799214 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See TFEU art. 191(2); cf. Case C-180/96, United Kingdom v. Comm'n, 1998 E.C.R. I-2269, para. 99 ("Where there is uncertainty as to the existence or extent of risks to human health, the institutions may take protective measures without having to wait until the reality and seriousness of those risks become fully apparent.").
  • 185
    • 84870799501 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 15 U.S.C. §§ 2601-2692 (2006).
  • 186
    • 84870839336 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Motaal, supra note 123, at 647.
  • 187
    • 84870821268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The EPA needs to provide "substantial evidence" that the chemical presents "unreasonable risk" to health or the environment, in addition to justifying the regulatory intervention under a cost-benefit analysis. This high standard of proof has led, for instance, to the EPA's failure to regulate asbestos. See Corrosion Proof Fittings v. EPA, 947 F.2d 1201, 1207 (5th Cir. 1991); see also Scott, supra note 122, at 903-04 (describing the burden of persuasion the EPA must meet regarding health and safety before it can regulate or restrict chemicals).
  • 188
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    • note
    • Wirth, supra note 36, at 102.
  • 189
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    • New Power for 'Old Europe,'
    • note
    • Mark Schapiro, New Power for 'Old Europe,' NATION, Dec. 27, 2004, at 11, 12.
    • NATION , pp. 11
    • Schapiro, M.1
  • 190
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    • note
    • Scott, supra note 122, at 902 (noting the size of the U.S. chemicals industry).
  • 192
    • 67049136625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • REACH: Impact on the US Cosmetics Industry?
    • Anne Pouillot et al., REACH: Impact on the US Cosmetics Industry?, 8 J. COSMETIC DERMATOLOGY 3, 5-6 (2009).
    • (2009) J. COSMETIC DERMATOLOGY , vol.8 , Issue.3 , pp. 5-6
    • Pouillot, A.1
  • 193
    • 84870768400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Wirth, supra note 36, at 102-103.
  • 194
    • 84870841453 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Scott, supra note 122, at 908-920 (describing how REACH's effect on U.S. businesses has prompted state-level harmonization attempts).
  • 195
    • 84870841846 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • VOGEL, supra note 59, at 204.
  • 196
    • 84870814189 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 169.
  • 197
    • 84870779618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 217.
  • 198
    • 84870818549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Scott, supra note 122, at 939-940.
  • 199
    • 33845603434 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Raising Global Standards: Hazardous Substances and E-Waste Management in the European Union
    • note
    • Henrik Selin & Stacy D. VanDeveer, Raising Global Standards: Hazardous Substances and E-Waste Management in the European Union, ENVIRONMENT, Dec. 2006, at 7, 14.
    • ENVIRONMENT , pp. 7
    • Selin, H.1    Vandeveer, S.D.2
  • 200
    • 84870783390 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This is consistent with VOGEL, supra note 18, at 5-8.
  • 202
    • 84870811026 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Michael Kirschner, Why Electronics Companies Need to Worry About REACH, EE TIMES (Sept. 18, 2007, 2:40 PM), http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4181306/Why-electronics-companies-need-to-worry-about-REACH (discussing the implications of REACH in the entire supply network).
    • Why Electronics Companies Need to Worry About REACH
    • Kirschner, M.1
  • 203
    • 84870787672 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • REACH-type regulations have been adopted in countries such as Canada, Australia, China, South Korea, Japan, and Russia. See VOGEL, supra note 59, at 170.
  • 204
    • 77954498521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Assessing Policy Reach: Japan's Chemical Policy Reform in Response to the EU's REACH Regulation
    • Yoshiko Naiki, Assessing Policy Reach: Japan's Chemical Policy Reform in Response to the EU's REACH Regulation, 22 J. ENVTL. L. 171, 178 (2010).
    • (2010) J. ENVTL. L , vol.22 , Issue.171 , pp. 178
    • Naiki, Y.1
  • 205
    • 84870840868 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Scott, supra note 122, at 920-928.
  • 206
    • 84870812152 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 914-20 (discussing regulatory reforms in Maine and Massachusetts and in Congress).
  • 207
    • 84870795878 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id.
  • 208
    • 84870815509 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 910-14 (quoting CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE § 25252(b)(2) (West Supp. 2012)).
  • 209
    • 84870810988 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Directive 2002/95/EC, supra note 9, art. 1 (laying out the EU policy on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment); see also Directive 2002/96/EC, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), 2003 O.J. (L 37) 24.
  • 210
    • 84870811910 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Directive 2002/95/EC, supra note 9.
  • 212
    • 84870768938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legislation on Electrical and Electronic Equipment Enters New Phase
    • note
    • Legislation on Electrical and Electronic Equipment Enters New Phase, ENV'T FOR EUROPEANS, Mar. 2011, at 10, available at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/news/efe/pdf/efe42/ENEFE42-110328.pdf.
    • ENV'T FOR EUROPEANS , pp. 10
  • 213
    • 84870779093 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Selin & VanDeveer, supra note 138, at 14 (reaching the same conclusion).
  • 214
    • 84870826948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Press Release, supra note 148 (referring to the RoHS Directive having led to "important changes in product design in the European Union and worldwide"); see also Otto Pohl, European Environmental Rules Propel Change in U.S., N.Y. TIMES, July 6, 2004, at F4 (discussing the global nature of the electronics business and noting that "a multinational that redesigns its product to eliminate a substance banned in the E.U. often finds it cheaper to sell that product worldwide").
  • 215
    • 84870805382 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • About the RoHS Directive
    • note
    • About the RoHS Directive, FUJITSU, http://www.fujitsu.com/emea/services/components/thermal-printers/rohs.html (last visited Nov. 6, 2012) (stating Fujitsu's compliance with RoHS).
    • FUJITSU
  • 216
    • 84870825380 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oracle Global Position on Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS)
    • note
    • Oracle Global Position on Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), ORACLE (Oct. 2012), http://www.oracle.com/us/products/applications/green/rohs-position-185078.pdf (stating Oracle's global compliance with RoHS).
    • ORACLE
  • 217
    • 84870806179 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Selin & VanDeveer, supra note 138, at 14-15.
  • 218
    • 84870815565 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See CAL. PUB. RES. CODE §§ 42460-42486 (West 2007 & Supp. 2012). The EU's RoHS Directive is referenced in § 42465.2(b).
  • 219
    • 84870854552 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See id. §§ 42463, 42465.2(b); CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE § 25214.10(b) (West 2006).
  • 220
    • 84870790407 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Scott, supra note 122, at 942.
  • 221
    • 84870781555 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Directive 2008/101/EC, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 Amending Directive 2003/87/EC So as to Include Aviation Activities in the Scheme for Greenhouse Gas Emission Allowance Trading Within the Community, 2009 O.J. (L 8) 3 [hereinafter Directive 2008/101/EC].
  • 223
    • 84870808218 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 4-5.
  • 224
    • 84870780762 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id.
  • 225
    • 84870816690 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Case C-366/10, Air Transp. Ass'n of Am. v. Sec'y of State for Energy & Climate Change, EUR-Lex 62010CJ0366 (Dec. 21, 2011).
  • 226
    • 84870818224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See ATA Challenges Application of the EU ETS to U.S. Airlines, AIRLINES FOR AM., http://www.airlines.org/Pages/ATA-challenges-the-application-of-the-EU-ETS-to-U.S.-Airlines.aspx (last visited Nov. 6, 2012). According to the plaintiffs, the ETS Directive violates a number of international agreements, including the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention), the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the Air Transport Agreement between the United States and the EU and its member states (Open Skies Agreement).
  • 227
    • 84870808409 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Press Release No. 139/11, Court of Justice of the European Union, The Directive Including Aviation Activities in the EU's Emissions Trading Scheme is Valid 2 (Dec. 21, 2011), available at http://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2011-12/cp110139en.pdf (discussing Case C-366/10, Air Transp. Ass'n of Am.).
  • 228
    • 84870838512 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Case C-366/10, Air Transp. Ass'n of Am., paras. 122-127.
  • 229
    • 84870856448 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Directive 2008/101/EC, supra note 154, para. 17.
  • 230
    • 84864527871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EU Climate Change Unilateralism
    • note
    • Joanne Scott & Lavanya Rajamani, EU Climate Change Unilateralism, 23 EUR. J. INT'L L. 469, 482-483 (2012) (discussing the equivalency concept in more detail).
    • (2012) EUR. J. INT'L L , vol.23 , Issue.469 , pp. 482-483
    • Scott, J.1    Rajamani, L.2
  • 231
    • 84870803201 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Scott & Rajamani, supra note 162, at 475.
  • 233
    • 84870792476 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Statement of Policy: Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties, 57 Fed. Reg. 22,984, 22,988, 22,991 (May 29, 1992).
  • 234
    • 84870809000 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Regulation (EC) No. 1829/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2003 on Genetically Modified Food and Feed, 2003 O.J. (L 268) 1, 2.
  • 235
    • 27744566770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • European Regulation of GMOs and the WTO
    • Joanne Scott, European Regulation of GMOs and the WTO, 9 COLUM. J. EUR. L. 213, 219-224 (2003).
    • (2003) COLUM. J. EUR. L , vol.9 , Issue.213 , pp. 219-224
    • Scott, J.1
  • 236
    • 84870795452 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Regulation (EC) No. 1830/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2003 Concerning the Traceability and Labelling of Genetically Modified Organisms, 2003 O.J. (L 268) 24, 26-27.
  • 237
    • 0348252063 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Biopolitics in the EU and the U.S.: A Race to the Bottom or Convergence to the Top?
    • note
    • Aseem Prakash & Kelly L. Kollman, Biopolitics in the EU and the U.S.: A Race to the Bottom or Convergence to the Top?, 47 INT'L STUD. Q. 617, 629-34 (2003) (discussing how U.S. and EU regulatory approaches may be converging as state-level legislative activity and court challenges against GMOs grow).
    • (2003) INT'L STUD. Q , vol.47 , pp. 629-634
    • Prakash, A.1    Kollman, K.L.2
  • 238
    • 84870826147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 627.
  • 239
    • 84870824189 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id.
  • 240
    • 84870793229 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EUROBAROMETER
    • note
    • EUROPEAN COMM'N, EUROBAROMETER 55.2: EUROPEANS, SCIENCE, AND TECHNOLOGY 40 (2001), available at http://ec.europa.eu/research/press/2001/pr0612en-report.pdf (presenting data on Europeans' perceptions of GMOs specifically, with 71% of respondents agreeing with the statement, "I do not want this type of food").
    • (2001) EUROPEANS, SCIENCE, and TECHNOLOGY , vol.55 , Issue.2
  • 241
    • 84870844433 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • SPECIAL EUROBAROMETER
    • note
    • EUROPEAN COMM'N, SPECIAL EUROBAROMETER 238: RISK ISSUES 53 (2006), available at http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_238_en.pdf (presenting data on Europeans' perception of various food-related risks, with 62% concerned about GMOs).
    • (2006) RISK ISSUES , vol.238 , pp. 53
  • 242
    • 84870786955 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Prakash & Kollman, supra note 169, at 627 (citing an Environics poll, which reported that while 78% of Americans support agriculture biotechnology, the comparable figure in Germany was 54%, 52% in France, 36% in Britain, and 29% in Spain).
  • 244
    • 84870828053 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In which Newman argues that regulatory capacity is the key variable explaining global regulatory outcomes. He argues that the EU initially had fragmented institutional capacity with respect to food safety, explaining its limited ability to export its preferences globally. However, he reasons that the establishment of the European Food Safety Agency "could substantially strengthen the European position." Id.
  • 246
    • 84870832151 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • However, trade diversion may entail the producers being able to sell their crop at a lower price in alternative export markets.
  • 247
    • 84870823349 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Prakash & Kollman, supra note 169, at 632; see also VOGEL, supra note 59, at 89 (noting that "[a]s of 2002, seventeen countries had adopted mandatory GM food labeling requirements").
  • 249
    • 84870838234 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • see also Case C-442/09, Bablok v. Freistaat Bayern, EUR-Lex 62009CJ0442, at 8 (Sept. 6, 2011) (confirming that honey containing traces of GMOs due to accidental contamination from GMO test fields that were 500 meters away nonetheless is considered food produced from a GMO under European food law).
  • 250
    • 84870850064 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • HANRAHAN, supra note 178.
  • 251
    • 84870843553 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Young, supra note 44, at 467-68.
  • 252
    • 84870845087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 469; see also VOGEL, supra note 59, at 86 (noting that over 95% of the GMO corn production in the United States today concentrates on the varieties approved in the EU, notwithstanding a greater number of GMO varieties approved in the United States, and similarly, that almost all GMO soybean production in the United States employs the single variety approved by the EU).
  • 253
    • 84870843492 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For instance, firms like Unilever and Nestle have pledged not to use GMOs in any of their products, irrespective of the end market. Gerber and Heinz similarly exclude GMOs from all of their baby food, including baby food sold on the U.S. market. See VOGEL, supra note 59, at 86.
  • 254
    • 84870771131 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Mitchener, supra note 3.
  • 255
    • 84870837695 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See id.; see also Wirth, supra note 36, at 104 (referring to the "virtual collapse of the market for U.S. exports of corn" following the EU's labeling requirements, and noting that U.S. rice and wheat farmers have steered away from GMO varieties for the same reason). Similarly, multinational restaurant retailers operating in the EU, including McDonalds, have requested their contract farmers to produce only non-GMO crops to mitigate consumer backlash in the EU. See Prakash & Kollman, supra note 169, at 632.
  • 256
    • 84870816161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Panel Report, European Communities-Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, paras. 8.1-.33, WT/DS291/R, WT/DS292/R, WT/DS293/R (Sept. 29, 2006).
  • 257
    • 84870834754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See HANRAHAN, supra note 178, at 6; see also Minutes of Meeting, WT/DSB/M/311, at 6-7 (Mar. 15, 2012) (discussing the continuing concerns of the United States regarding the EU's backlog of approvals of biotech product applications).
  • 259
    • 0035997719 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?
    • note
    • Ian Manners, Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?, 40 J. COMMON MARKET STUD. 235, 235 (2002) (arguing that the EU is a "normative power" in world politics).
    • (2002) J. COMMON MARKET STUD , vol.40 , Issue.235 , pp. 235
    • Manners, I.1
  • 260
    • 84870850280 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • These concepts are further elaborated below. See also infra notes 188, 190-93, 196-200 and accompanying text.
  • 261
    • 57249112817 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commentary, Unilateralism and Constitutionalism
    • Jed Rubenfeld, Commentary, Unilateralism and Constitutionalism, 79 N.Y.U. L. REV. 1971, 1975-1976, 2005-2006 (2004).
    • (2004) N.Y.U. L. REV , vol.79 , Issue.1971 , pp. 1975-1976
    • Rubenfeld, J.1
  • 262
    • 79955825063 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Universal Exceptionalism in International Law
    • note
    • Anu Bradford & Eric A. Posner, Universal Exceptionalism in International Law, 52 HARV. INT'L L.J. 1, 53 (2011) (arguing that most major international powers are exceptionalist in that they "seek to embody their values and interests in international law").
    • (2011) HARV. INT'L L.J , vol.52 , Issue.1 , pp. 53
    • Bradford, A.1    Posner, E.A.2
  • 264
    • 43449131582 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Europe as a Global Actor: Empire by Example?
    • note
    • Jan Zielonka, Europe as a Global Actor: Empire by Example?, 84 INT'L AFF. 471, 471, 475 n.17 (2008) [hereinafter Zielonka, Empire by Example].
    • (2008) INT'L AFF , vol.84 , Issue.471 , pp. 471
    • Zielonka, J.1
  • 265
    • 84870804482 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • see also KOGAN, supra note 132, at 98 (arguing that Europe's goal is to establish the precautionary principle not only as a regional standard but also "as an absolute global legal standard").
  • 266
    • 84870771423 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Laïdi, supra note 56, at 9-10; see also Zielonka, Empire by Example, supra note 190, at 476 (discussing how negotiations with candidate countries are highly asymmetrical and the countries are presented with two options: adopting the entire body of EU laws and regulations as a condition for membership, or not joining the club).
  • 267
    • 84870809922 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Editorial, supra note 3 (referring to the EU as "try[ing] to force the rest of the world...to play by its cumbersome rules" as well as "impos[ing] its regulatory vision on other jurisdictions by setting the toughest standards"); see also Editorial, supra note 86 (discussing EU antitrust enforcement and calling for "Washington to wake up to Europe's regulatory imperialism").
  • 268
    • 85055304733 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Exporting Europe's Protectionism
    • note
    • Lawrence A. Kogan, Exporting Europe's Protectionism, NAT'L INT., Fall 2004, at 91, 99.
    • NAT'L INT , pp. 91
    • Kogan, L.A.1
  • 269
    • 84870833759 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The quoted passage relates to Kogan's discussion of the EU's GMO ban and the impact of that ban on developing countries in particular. See also Peter F. Drucker, Trading Places, NAT'L INT., Spring 2005, at 101 (arguing that one of the purposes of economic blocs-like the EU-is to export their regulations for protectionist purposes).
  • 270
    • 84870815127 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • According to polls, 70% of Europeans want Europe to assume this role.
  • 272
    • 33747371589 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • EUROPEAN COMM'N, TAKING EUROPE TO THE WORLD 59 (2004) (emphasizing as a significant achievement Europe's new and growing world influence).
    • (2004) TAKING EUROPE to THE WORLD , pp. 59
  • 273
    • 84870837543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The EU and the New Trade Politics
    • note
    • Alasdair R. Young & John Peterson, The EU and the New Trade Politics, in THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE NEW TRADE POLITICS 1, 2 (John Peterson & Alasdair R. Young eds., 2007) ("[B]ecause its economy is important to other actors, the EU seeks to wield influence by making access to its large and valuable market conditional on domestic policy changes elsewhere....").
    • (2007) THE EUROPEAN UNION and THE NEW TRADE POLITICS , vol.1 , pp. 2
    • Young, A.R.1    Peterson, J.2
  • 274
    • 84870855127 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Single Market for Citizens, at 7, COM (2007) 60 final (Feb. 21, 2007).
  • 275
    • 84870825444 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Reducing Emissions from the Aviation Sector, EUR. COMM'N, http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation/index_en.htm (last updated Nov. 13, 2012) (noting that the EU Emissions Trading System is "a step towards global action to mitigate the climate impacts of aviation").
    • Reducing Emissions From the Aviation Sector
  • 276
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    • note
    • See TFEU art. 3(5) ("In its relations with the wider world, the Union shall uphold and promote its values and interests and contribute to the protection of its citizens. It shall contribute to peace, security, the sustainable development of the Earth, solidarity and mutual respect among peoples, free and fair trade, eradication of poverty and the protection of human rights, in particular the rights of the child, as well as to the strict observance and the development of international law, including respect for the principles of the United Nations Charter."); see also Ian Manners, The Normative Ethics of the European Union, 84 INT'L AFF. 45, 46 (2008) (arguing that the EU is indeed a normative power because it "promotes a series of normative principles that are generally acknowledged...to be universally applicable").
  • 277
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    • note
    • Jose Manuel Barroso, Europe's Rising Global Role, PROJECT SYNDICATE (Dec. 18, 2009), http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/europe-s-rising-global-role ("[I]t is often said that the EU's comparative advantage lies in its normative power or the power of its values. I think this is right. In the post-crisis world, when people are looking for new ways to ensure their well-being, peace, prosperity, the European experience has a great deal to offer the world.").
    • Europe's Rising Global Role
    • Barroso, J.M.1
  • 278
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    • note
    • Joseph Stiglitz, The EU's Global Role, GUARDIAN (Mar. 29, 2007, 11:00 AM), http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2007/mar/29/theeusglobalmission ("Europe...must become one of the central pillars of [the] world by projecting what has come to be called 'soft power'-the power and influence of ideas and example. Indeed, Europe's success is due in part to its promotion of a set of values that, while quintessentially European, are at the same time global.").
    • The EU's Global Role
    • Stiglitz, J.1
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    • note
    • See id.
  • 281
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    • note
    • See Clean-Air Turbulence, ECONOMIST, July 9-15, 2011, at 16; Editorial, supra note 3.
  • 282
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    • note
    • Meunier & Nicolaïdis, supra note 49, at 921-922.
  • 284
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    • Why Europe Needs a Constitution
    • note
    • Jürgen Habermas, Why Europe Needs a Constitution, in THE SHAPE OF THE NEW EUROPE 25 (Ralf Rogowski & Charles Turner eds., 2006) (arguing that social regulation is part of the European tradition). This is often referred to as an "embedded liberalism" compromise.
    • (2006) THE SHAPE of the NEW EUROPE , pp. 25
    • Habermas, J.1
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    • International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order
    • John Gerard Ruggie, International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, 36 INT'L ORG. 379, 392-399 (1982).
    • (1982) INT'L ORG , vol.36 , Issue.379 , pp. 392-399
    • Ruggie, J.G.1
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    • note
    • Laïdi, supra note 56, at 4.
  • 289
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    • note
    • Manners, supra note 187, at 235-258.
  • 290
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    • note
    • Karen E. Smith, Still 'Civilian Power EU?' 13-14 (European Foreign Policy Unit, Working Paper No. 2005/1, 2005) (discussing whether EU projections of soft power constitute global "good international citizenship").
    • Still 'Civilian Power EU?' , pp. 13-14
    • Smith, K.E.1
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    • 'This is my EUtopia...': Narrative as Power
    • Kalypso Nicolaïdis & Robert Howse, 'This is my EUtopia...': Narrative as Power, 40 J. COMMON MARKET STUD. 767, 789 (2002).
    • (2002) J. COMMON MARKET STUD , vol.40 , Issue.767 , pp. 789
    • Nicolaïdis, K.1    Howse, R.2
  • 292
    • 85053486907 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Europe's Others and the Return of Geopolitics
    • note
    • Thomas Diez, Europe's Others and the Return of Geopolitics, 17 CAMBRIDGE REV. INT'L AFF. 319, 325, 330-335 (2004) (arguing that European integration-and norm exportation-is an essential part of the process of constructing a new European identity in opposition both to foreign nations like the United States and its own past).
    • (2004) CAMBRIDGE REV. INT'L AFF , vol.17 , Issue.319 , pp. 330-335
    • Diez, T.1
  • 293
    • 84870852393 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Laïdi supra note 56, at 5 ("For Europe knows that it is only by norms and not by force that it can make its voice heard.").
  • 294
    • 84870823696 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • KOGAN, supra note 132, at 3-4, 101-02.
  • 296
    • 84870805644 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee: A Strategic Vision for European Standards: Moving Forward to Enhance and Accelerate the Sustainable Growth of the European Economy by 2020, at 2-3, COM (2011) 311 final (June 1, 2011) ("It is especially vital that in areas where Europe is the driving innovation force in developing new types of tradable goods, services and technologies...that the creation of the European standard be carried out rapidly with the aim of asserting it as an international standard. This would maximise first mover advantage and increase the competitiveness of European industry.").
  • 297
    • 84870833056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Emma Tucker, Plastic Toy Quandary that EU Cannot Duck, FIN. TIMES, Dec. 9, 1998, at 3 (discussing the Commission's attempt to reconcile its two central functions-demands for consumer protection and competitiveness of European industry).
    • Plastic Toy Quandary That EU Cannot Duck , pp. 3
    • Tucker, E.1
  • 298
    • 84870777676 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Rahim, supra note 164 (quoting the Commission's spokesman, Isaac Valero-Ladron, defending the EU's inclusion of foreign airlines in the EU's ETS scheme: "We can't impose a burden only to European airlines and not include others....It would be distortion of competition.").
  • 299
    • 84870851740 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Selin & VanDeever, supra note 138, at 10-11 (discussing this phenomenon inside the EU in connection with environmental regulation).
  • 300
    • 84870815622 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • NEWMAN, supra note 174, at 11.
  • 301
    • 0003897374 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Elizabeth R. Desombre, DOMESTIC SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 39-47 (2000) (discussing how in the context of environmental regulation in the United States, aligned interests of industry and environmental interest groups were responsible for internationalization of various regulations).
    • (2000) DOMESTIC SOURCES of INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY , pp. 39-47
    • Desombre, E.R.1
  • 302
    • 84870828102 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Regulation (EC) 1221/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 on the Voluntary Participation by Organisations in a Community Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), art. 1, 2009 O.J. (L 342) 1.
  • 303
    • 84884779155 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Whose Benefit? Explaining Regulatory Change in Global Politics
    • note
    • Walter Mattli & Ngaire Woods, In Whose Benefit? Explaining Regulatory Change in Global Politics, in THE POLITICS OF GLOBAL REGULATION 1, 35 (Walter Mattli & Ngaire Woods eds., 2009).
    • (2009) THE POLITICS of GLOBAL REGULATION , vol.1 , pp. 35
    • Mattli, W.1    Woods, N.2
  • 304
    • 84870822865 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Mattli & Woods, supra note 214.
  • 305
    • 84870811912 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See VOGEL, supra note 18, at 67.
  • 306
    • 84870794801 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Shaffer, supra note 96, at 10-13 (discussing the link between the EU Data Protection Directive and EU trade liberalization).
  • 307
    • 84870785583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See VOGEL, supra note 59, at 237.
  • 309
    • 84870799478 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • TFEU arts. 23-25.
  • 310
    • 84870840000 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • id.
  • 311
    • 84870809369 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See id. art. 3(3) (discussing the objectives of the EU: "The Union shall establish an internal market."); see also Single European Act, supra note 52 (delegating substantial powers to the Commission to ensure its ability to complete the single market).
  • 312
    • 84870833461 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Budget: Investing in our Future, EUR. COMM'N, http://europa.eu/pol/financ/index_en.htm (last updated May 16, 2012); Myths and Facts: EU Budget Myths, EUR. COMM'N, http://ec.europa.eu/budget/explained/myths/myths_en.cfm#1of15 (last updated Apr. 18, 2012). This can be contrasted to the U.S. federal government spending, which regularly exceeds 20% of the GDP. See OFFICE OF MGMT. & BUDGET, FISCAL YEAR 2013 HISTORICAL TABLES: BUDGET OF THE U.S. GOVERNMENT 9 (2010).
    • Budget: Investing in our Future, EUR
  • 313
    • 84870805608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Majone, supra note 50, at 85, 98.
  • 314
    • 84923504169 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Standards and Standard-Setting Bodies
    • note
    • Tim Büthe & Walter Mattli, International Standards and Standard-Setting Bodies, in THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF BUSINESS AND GOVERNMENT 440, 448-463 (David Coen et al. eds., 2010).
    • (2010) THE OXFORD HANDBOOK of BUSINESS and GOVERNMENT , vol.440 , pp. 448-463
    • Büthe, T.1    Mattli, W.2
  • 315
    • 84870845628 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The EU has no direct role in, for instance, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), but European firms have been more successful than U.S. firms in influencing ISO standards due to better institutional complementarities between standardization systems at the national level in the EU and at the international level.
  • 317
    • 84870835771 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For example, Microsoft established the Windows operating system as a global de facto standard. Another example is the Blu-ray optical disc format developed by a consortia consisting of Sony, Philips, and Panasonic. The Blu-ray format overtook the HD-DVD format and became a global standard after a number of market participants-including computer manufacturers, retailers, and movie studios- switched to the Blu-ray standard.
  • 320
    • 84870804854 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The incentive for reform created by the prospect of membership [is] strong-enlargement has unarguably been the Union's most successful foreign policy instrument.
  • 321
    • 84870826062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • On theories that highlight the central role of experimentalism, benchmarking, and legislative borrowing in shaping the global regulatory environment.
  • 322
    • 57649231034 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Learning from Difference: The New Architecture of Experimentalist Governance in the EU
    • Charles F. Sabel & Jonathan Zeitlin, Learning from Difference: The New Architecture of Experimentalist Governance in the EU, 14 EUR. L.J. 271 (2008).
    • (2008) EUR. L.J , vol.14 , pp. 271
    • Sabel, C.F.1    Zeitlin, J.2
  • 323
    • 84870802557 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For an example of how adoption of a high regulation in the EU can help build political pressure for regulatory reform in the United States
  • 324
    • 79959993809 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Diffusion Through Democracy
    • Katerina Linos, Diffusion Through Democracy, 55 AM. J. POL. SCI. 678, 685-686 (2011)
    • (2011) AM. J. POL. SCI , vol.55 , Issue.678 , pp. 685-686
    • Linos, K.1
  • 325
    • 84870850208 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Discussing how a key argument for the passage of maternity leave in the United States was that Europe and Japan already offered this benefit.
  • 328
    • 84870834534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tackling the EU's Emerging Irrelevance in the Doha Round
    • note
    • Megan Dee, Tackling the EU's Emerging Irrelevance in the Doha Round, IDEAS ON EUR. (Apr. 12, 2012), http://ecfr.ideasoneurope.eu/2012/04/12/tackling-the-eus-emerging-irrelevance-in-the-doharound/.
    • IDEAS ON EUR
    • Dee, M.1
  • 329
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    • note
    • Macey, supra note 29, at 1367-69.
  • 330
    • 34548625649 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Antitrust Negotiations and the False Hope of the WTO
    • Anu Bradford, International Antitrust Negotiations and the False Hope of the WTO, 48 HARV. INT'L L.J. 383, 413-422 (2007).
    • (2007) HARV. INT'L L.J , vol.48 , Issue.383 , pp. 413-422
    • Bradford, A.1
  • 331
    • 33644479419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dealing With a Resource Crisis: Regulatory Regimes for Managing the World's Marine Fisheries
    • Christopher J. Carr & Harry N. Scheiber, Dealing With a Resource Crisis: Regulatory Regimes for Managing the World's Marine Fisheries, 21 STAN. ENVTL. L.J. 45, 53, 62, 76-79 (2002).
    • (2002) STAN. ENVTL. L.J , vol.21 , Issue.45 , pp. 76-79
    • Carr, C.J.1    Scheiber, H.N.2
  • 332
    • 84870780078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vogel & Kagan, supra note 15, at 23.
    • Vogel1    Kagan2
  • 333
    • 84870769910 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Large Black Cloud: Rapid Growth Is Exacting a Heavy Environmental Price
    • note
    • A Large Black Cloud: Rapid Growth Is Exacting a Heavy Environmental Price, ECONOMIST, Mar. 15, 2008, at 13, 17.
    • ECONOMIST , pp. 13
  • 334
    • 84870778543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bradford, supra note 231, at 408.
  • 335
    • 84870782135 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The EU is not the lone aggressive regulator of cartels. The United States takes an equally tough stand vis-à-vis collusive practices of firms, more than the EU does. Indeed, the United States has more invasive investigatory tools and remedies at its disposal than the EU does, due to more extensive discovery rules in the United States and U.S. authorities' ability to pursue criminal penalties. Third countries' agencies can often free ride on U.S. and EU authorities' investigations. Yet both agencies can see their laws' deterrent effect diluted if cartels can freely operate in third markets.
  • 336
    • 84870801587 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd. v. Empagran S. A., 542 U.S. 155, 169 (2004).
  • 337
    • 84870770915 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vogel & Kagan, supra note 15, at 13.
    • Vogel1    Kagan2
  • 338
    • 84870825225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • However, these standards are not more likely to spread unless the main economic activity is taking place on export markets.
  • 339
    • 84870809921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Macey, supra note 29, at 1369.
  • 340
    • 84870795331 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The European Commission has stated that "[t]he EU aims at global standard setting by promoting the adoption overseas of standards and regulatory approaches based on, or compatible with, international and European practices." Gstöhl, supra note 219, at 19 (emphasis and internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting Commission Staff Working Paper: Implementing Policy for External Trade in the Fields of Standards and Conformity Assessment: A Tool Box of Instruments, at 8, SEC (2001) 1570 final (Sept. 28, 2001)); see Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Single Market for Citizens, COM (2007) 60 final (Feb. 21, 2007).
  • 341
    • 77949869625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Un-Exceptionalism of U.S. Exceptionalism
    • Sabrina Safrin, The Un-Exceptionalism of U.S. Exceptionalism, 41 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 1307, 1324-1327 (2008).
    • (2008) VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L , vol.41 , Issue.1307 , pp. 1324-1327
    • Safrin, S.1
  • 342
    • 84870803961 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In a similar vein, Wirth argues that de facto convergence of regulations and business practices increases the likelihood of regulatory consensus and thus paves the way for international harmonization. Wirth, supra note 36, at 106; see also Bradford, supra note 231, at 439 (arguing that increased convergence may pave the way for an international antitrust agreement, but also noting the declining net benefits of such an agreement after de facto harmonization has taken place).
  • 343
    • 2442419636 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Dominic Wilson & Roopa Purushothaman, Dreaming with BRICs: The Path to 2050 (Goldman Sachs, Global Econ., Paper No. 99, 2003), available at http://www.goldmansachs.com/ourthinking/brics/brics-reports-pdfs/brics-dream.pdf (predicting rapid growth in emerging economies in the coming decades).
    • (2003) Dreaming With BRICs: The Path to 2050
    • Wilson, D.1    Purushothaman, R.2
  • 344
    • 84870819623 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For example, Chinese officials rejected Coca-Cola's attempted acquisition of Huiyuan Juice Group for $2.4 billion.
  • 345
    • 77955731522 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chinese Merger Control: Patterns and Implications
    • Xinzhu Zhang & Vanessa Yanhua Zhang, Chinese Merger Control: Patterns and Implications, 6 J. COMPETITION L. & ECON. 477, 480-481 (2009).
    • (2009) J. COMPETITION L. & ECON , vol.6 , Issue.477 , pp. 480-481
    • Zhang, X.1    Zhang, V.Y.2
  • 346
    • 84870833515 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vogel & Kagan, supra note 15, at 9.
    • Vogel1    Kagan2
  • 347
    • 84870770343 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 6.
  • 348
    • 84870812526 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Of course, it is plausible that some corporations benefit from their adherence to strict EU standards. Compliance with EU rules may be a way to signal high product quality or commitment to high standards of consumer protection.
  • 350
    • 0042181512 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oceans Apart: As Honeywell Deal Goes Awry for GE, Fallout May Be Global
    • note
    • Matt Murray et al., Oceans Apart: As Honeywell Deal Goes Awry for GE, Fallout May Be Global, WALL ST. J., June 15, 2001, at A1 (discussing how the result of the GE/Honeywell agreement might chill merger activity among other US multinationals interested in expanding globally).
    • WALL ST. J
    • Murray, M.1
  • 351
    • 84870818103 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See the E.C.J. case discussed by Murray et al., supra note 248
  • 353
    • 84870813149 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The articlementions that twenty-one countries have opposed the inclusion of non-EU airlines into the EU's ETS scheme, how there have been several threats of retaliation, and how China has threatened to cancel a contract for ten planes made by European manufacturer Airbus. India has similarly threatened with retaliation.
  • 354
    • 84870826250 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For instance, the Bush Administration preempted California's regulations on GHG emissions. See 42 U.S.C. § 7543(a) (2006). The EPA also denied California's first application for a preemption waiver.
  • 356
    • 84870805318 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Young, supra note 44, at 458-59.
  • 357
    • 84870848730 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chinese Envoy Urges Airlines to Shun Buying Airbus Planes
    • note
    • Daniel Michaels, Chinese Envoy Urges Airlines to Shun Buying Airbus Planes, WALL ST. J. EUR., Mar. 12, 2012, at 21. However, the EU insists it will not back down.
    • WALL ST. J. EUR , pp. 21
    • Michaels, D.1
  • 358
    • 84870786807 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Joshua Chaffin, EU Defies Carbon Trade War Threats, FT.COM (Mar. 20, 2012, 8:00 PM), http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/10aebc46-72b6-11e1-ae73-00144feab49a.html#axzz263rsQIP5
    • EU Defies Carbon Trade War Threats
    • Chaffin, J.1
  • 359
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    • U.S. May Retaliate if EU Rejects Boeing Merger
    • note
    • Brian Coleman, U.S. May Retaliate if EU Rejects Boeing Merger, WALL ST. J., July 18, 1997, at A2 (reporting that President Clinton threatened the EU with unilateral trade sanctions or a WTO challenge if the EU were to block the deal).
    • WALL ST. J
    • Coleman, B.1
  • 360
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    • note
    • Majoras, supra note 78, at 14.
  • 361
    • 84870774891 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • At times, the United States may therefore concede and adopt the EU standard, in particular if it faces domestic demand to do so following any lobbying activity by its own export-oriented companies that are already subject to EU rules and that therefore seek to level the playing field domestically.
  • 362
    • 84870837470 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Drezner, supra note 23, at 845.
  • 363
    • 84870798728 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • id.
  • 364
    • 84870818289 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Majoras, supra note 78.
  • 365
    • 84870841568 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Macey, supra note 29, at 1359; Majoras, supra note 78, at 15 (after criticizing the GE/Honeywell decision, proposing to pursue greater international cooperation to avoid inconsistent decisions in the future); see also Rahim, supra note 164 (discussing how the Air Transport Association of America (ATA) is urging global climate action in the wake of the EU's decision to include foreign airlines into its ETS). The ATA endorses a nonbinding international emissions agreement within the UN's International Civil Aviation Organization.
  • 367
    • 84870845350 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For California, REACH can be described as having been "both a catalyst and a resource for regulatory reform." Scott, supra note 122, at 898; see also Pohl, supra note 150 (arriving at the same conclusion).
  • 368
    • 84870831302 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Young, supra note 44, at 474. For instance, while the EU rules on GMO-derived food have not led to a regulatory change in the United States, the dispute surrounding the issue has heightened domestic debates on potential downsides of biotechnology. Civic interest groups have seized on the issue and used it to promote regulatory change domestically. Similarly, some American consumers are content that web operators cannot place cookies-software files that track consumers' Internet searches to gather marketing information-on personal computers. See Pohl, supra note 150; Scott, supra note 122, at 920-28 (discussing how U.S.-based NGOs, including the Environmental Defense Fund, have used REACH to advocate for domestic reform); Editorial, supra note 3.
  • 369
    • 84870784371 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This is particularly valuable if a chemical company can show that it produces a safer alternative compared to its competitor's "substance of very high concern," as this would lead to automatic denial of the competitor's substance. See Scott, supra note 122, at 930.
  • 370
    • 84870844770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Commission Decision of 24 May 2004, Case COMP/C-3/37.792-Microsoft, 2007 O.J. (L 32) 23. The case was initiated by a U.S.-based corporation, Novell, and later joined by Sun Microsystems, another U.S.-based corporation. Commission Decision of 24 March 2004, Case COMP/C-3/37.792-Microsoft, paras. 3-4, C (2004) 900 final (Apr. 21, 2004).
  • 372
    • 84870780694 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Adding Our Voice to Concerns About Search in Europe
    • note
    • Brad Smith, Adding Our Voice to Concerns About Search in Europe, MICROSOFT ON THE ISSUES (Mar. 30, 2011, 9:00 PM), http://blogs.technet.com/b/microsoft_on_the_issues/archive/2011/03/30/adding-our-voice-toconcerns-about-search-in-europe.aspx.
    • MICROSOFT ON the ISSUES
    • Smith, B.1
  • 373
    • 84870776941 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade art. XX, Oct. 30, 1947, 61 Stat. A-11, 55 U.N.T.S. 194 [hereinafter GATT].
  • 374
    • 84870802172 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id.
  • 375
    • 84870819598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Appellate Body Report, European Communities-Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (Jan. 16, 1998) (adopted Feb. 13, 1998) [hereinafter Appellate Body Report]; Panel Report, supra note 185, at 1070-72.
  • 376
    • 84870840804 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Appellate Body Report, supra note 268, at 28.
  • 377
    • 84870838133 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • id. at 20-23.
  • 378
    • 84870786437 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 7.
  • 379
    • 84870794073 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Press Release, Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, U.S. Files WTO Case Challenging EU Restrictions on U.S. Poultry Exports (Jan. 2009), available at http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/pressoffice/press-releases/2009/january/us-files-wto-case-challenging-eu-restrictions-us-p.
  • 381
    • 84870793119 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id.
  • 383
    • 84870844862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The EU has further continued to gather scientific evidence to justify its import ban and challenge U.S. retaliation. After another round of WTO litigation and a mixed and inconclusive Appellate Body ruling, both the EU's import ban and the United States' retaliation remain in force. See Press Release, Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, WTO's Appellate Body Vindicates Continued U.S. Imposition of Sanctions After the EU Claimed Compliance in the EU- Hormones Dispute (Oct. 16, 2008), available at http://www.ustr.gov/archive/assets/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2008/October/asset_upload_file626_15173.pdf.
  • 384
    • 84870769214 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Appellate Body Report, European Communities-Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (Jan. 16, 1998) (adopted Feb. 13, 1998) [hereinafter Appellate Body Report]; Panel Report, supra note 185, at 1070-72.
  • 386
    • 84870803012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See id. at 20-23.
  • 387
    • 84870779923 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 7.
  • 388
    • 84870809419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Press Release, Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, U.S. Files WTO Case Challenging EU Restrictions on U.S. Poultry Exports (Jan. 2009), available at http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/pressoffice/press-releases/2009/january/us-files-wto-case-challenging-eu-restrictions-us-p.
  • 390
    • 84870768534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id.
  • 392
    • 84870836922 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The EU has further continued to gather scientific evidence to justify its import ban and challenge U.S. retaliation. After another round of WTO litigation and a mixed and inconclusive Appellate Body ruling, both the EU's import ban and the United States' retaliation remain in force. See Press Release, Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, WTO's Appellate Body Vindicates Continued U.S. Imposition of Sanctions After the EU Claimed Compliance in the EU- Hormones Dispute (Oct. 16, 2008), available at http://www.ustr.gov/archive/assets/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2008/October/asset_upload_file626_15173.pdf.
  • 393
    • 84870801919 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Carr & Scheiber, supra note 232, at 76-79.
  • 394
    • 85037332846 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Changing Nature of Global Hazardous Waste Management: From Brown to Green?
    • note
    • Kate O'Neill, The Changing Nature of Global Hazardous Waste Management: From Brown to Green?, in DYNAMICS OF REGULATORY CHANGE, supra note 15, at 156, 156-158.
    • DYNAMICS of REGULATORY CHANGE , pp. 156-158
    • O'Neill, K.1
  • 395
    • 84870824641 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • However, the EU's denial of market access may still affect the global market price as the total demand is curtailed and the fish is sold in an alternative market, possibly at a lower price.
  • 396
    • 84870855702 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Council Directive 2000/53/EC on End-of Life Vehicles, 2000 O.J. (L 53) 1.
  • 397
    • 84870828761 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Schapiro, supra note 131, at 14.
  • 398
    • 84870788062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • O'Neill, supra note 282, at 156-58.
  • 400
    • 84870785381 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The WTO recognizes very limited rights for any country to limit imports based on human rights violations in the exporting country. See GATT, supra note 266, art. XX(a), (e) (listing violation of "public morals" or the use of "the products of prison labour" as grounds for derogating from free trade). In contrast, protection of health and environment are explicitly listed as grounds for departing from WTO obligations. The EU has, however, included human rights provisions in its bilateral trade agreements and regularly conditions any country's Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) status on the country's agreement to ratify international conventions on human rights and subscribe to labor standards endorsed by the EU.
  • 401
    • 24944436165 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Trading Human Rights: How Preferential Trade Agreements Influence Government Repression
    • Emilie M. Hafner-Burton, Trading Human Rights: How Preferential Trade Agreements Influence Government Repression, 59 INT'L ORG. 593 (2005)
    • (2005) INT'L ORG , vol.59 , pp. 593
    • Hafner-Burton, E.M.1
  • 403
    • 84870793962 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bach & Newman, supra note 112, at 33-36 (describing the gambling legalization experience at the state level in the United States).
  • 404
    • 84870781795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Europeans Introduce Corporate Tax Plan
    • note
    • Stephen Castle, Europeans Introduce Corporate Tax Plan, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 17, 2011, at B5.
    • N.Y. TIMES
    • Castle, S.1
  • 405
    • 84870776633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • EU Corporate Tax Plan Deals Blow to Irish, EURACTIV.COM (Mar. 16, 2011), http://www.euractiv.com/euro-finance/eu-corporate-tax-plan-deals-blow-irish-news-503158 (discussing the "Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base" that was recently put forth by the Commission).
    • EU Corporate Tax Plan Deals Blow to Irish
  • 407
    • 84870796339 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Tax Wars, supra note 289 ("As they fight to keep corporate-tax rates low, the central Europeans can count on strong support from Britain....").
  • 408
    • 84870794138 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • VOGEL, supra note 59, at 103, 119-120.
  • 409
    • 84870797853 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The relatively less stringent EU standard is explained by the EU's prioritization of fuel efficiency over pollution control in its regulation of automobiles. This has led to a greater use of diesel engines within the EU, which, while improving fuel efficiency, produces more pollutants.
  • 410
    • 84870808755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-204, 116 Stat. 745 (codified at 15 U.S.C. §§ 7201-7266 (2006)). However, while Sarbanes-Oxley is considered to be the highest standard, the United States' regulatory leverage over the EU was somewhat diluted by the EU's objection to subjecting its firms' auditing to the oversight by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board created by Sarbanes-Oxley. After negotiations, the United States conceded that EU regulators could retain authority over auditing questions. The United States also agreed that the EU can use international-as opposed to U.S.-accounting standards in the United States.
  • 411
    • 84870796235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • NEWMAN, supra note 174, at 146.
  • 412
    • 84870837635 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, Pub. L. No. 111-203, 124 Stat. 1376
  • 413
    • 84870790585 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Codified as amended in scattered sections of 12, 15, 22, and 26 U.S.C.). Given the current state of flux of European financial regulation, it is not clear how the United States and the EU will compare in terms of the relative stringency of their banking and other financial regulations.
  • 414
    • 84870851861 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bob Sherwood, Long Arm of the US Regulator, FT.COM (Mar. 9, 2005, 6:37 PM), http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/1/be157b6a-90c6-11d9-9980-0000e2511c8.html#axzz2CJweoF8T.
    • Long Arm of the US Regulator
    • Sherwood, B.1
  • 415
    • 0036868524 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Racing Towards the Top?: The Impact of Cross-Listings and Stock Market Competition on International Corporate Governance
    • John C. Coffee Jr., Racing Towards the Top?: The Impact of Cross-Listings and Stock Market Competition on International Corporate Governance, 102 COLUM. L. REV. 1757 (2002)
    • (2002) COLUM. L. REV , vol.102 , pp. 1757
    • Coffee Jr., J.C.1
  • 416
    • 84870784687 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Discussing the impact of stock exchange "cross-listing" on global regulatory competition in the securities arena). A related question is whether the availability of securities class actions in the United States deters foreign companies from listing on a U.S. exchange. See COMM. ON CAPITAL MKTS. REGULATION, INTERIM REPORT 11 (2006) ("Foreign companies commonly cite the U.S. class action enforcement system as the most important reason why they do not want to list in the U.S. market.").
  • 418
    • 84870776375 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The tax would apply as long as "one party to the transaction were established in a Member State of the EU and that a financial institution established in the territory of the Member State concerned was party to the transaction."
  • 420
    • 84870800866 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See European Comm'n, supra note 295. The financial transaction tax is an example where the other conditions for the Brussels Effect are also missing: the EU currently lacks the regulatory competence (or capacity) to impose this tax; the required regulatory propensity is also missing, as the U.K. opposes the proposal. There are also alternative markets for trading activity, reducing the EU's leverage. Finally, the tax is also divisible in the sense that all jurisdictions do not have to apply the same tax, but instead retain their autonomy to regulate trade in their jurisdictions.
  • 421
    • 84870826670 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Case C-34/10, Brüstle v. Greenpeace eV., EUR-Lex 62010CJ0034 (Oct. 18, 2011).
  • 423
    • 84870789811 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See supra Part I.E.
  • 424
    • 84870838691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Windows 7 to Be Shipped in Europe Without Internet Explorer
    • note
    • Emil Protalinski, Windows 7 to Be Shipped in Europe Without Internet Explorer, ARSTECHNICA (June 11, 2009, 2:57 PM), http://arstechnica.com/microsoft/news/2009/06/windows-7-tobe-shipped-in-europe-sans-internet-explorer.ars.
    • ARSTECHNICA
    • Protalinski, E.1
  • 425
    • 79955475103 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • KPMG INT'L, THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY: THE ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION EFFECT 16 (2010), available at http://www.kpmg.de/docs/transformation-automotive-industry.pdf (discussing technology-implementation strategies used by auto companies in complying with divergent national regulations).
    • (2010) THE TRANSFORMATION of the AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY: The ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION EFFECT , pp. 16
  • 427
    • 84870804588 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Kogan, supra note 193, at 94
  • 429
    • 84870776308 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Cendrowicz, supra note 303 (noting that the Brussels Effect is expected to be less likely when the EU is a net exporter of certain products). These companies take little comfort that the playing field in their home market is level.
  • 430
    • 84870837851 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Eva R. Sunesen et al., COPENHAGEN ECON., IMPACTS OF EU OUTWARD FDI 6 (2010) ("Over the last couple of decades, EU firms have increased their investments outside EU borders. Outward FDI has increased by a factor of five during the last fifteen years....").
    • (2010) COPENHAGEN ECON., IMPACTS of EU OUTWARD FDI , pp. 6
    • Sunesen, E.R.1
  • 432
    • 84870777502 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Laïdi, supra note 56, at 19.
  • 433
    • 84870771458 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Meunier & Nicolaïdis, supra note 49, at 908-09.
  • 434
    • 84870796435 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • id. at 909
  • 435
    • 84972392228 scopus 로고
    • Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games
    • Robert D. Putnam, Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games, 42 INT'L ORG. 427, 459-460 (1988).
    • (1988) INT'L ORG , vol.42 , Issue.427 , pp. 459-460
    • Putnam, R.D.1
  • 436
    • 84870770975 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • We would also need to understand whether the possible costs of excessively strict global regulations outweigh the costs of having divergent, even if individually more optimally tailored, national regulations.
  • 437
    • 84870771580 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Similarly, the EU's unilateralism can be thought to fill the void where collective action problems prevent countries from reaching efficient outcomes through treaties. Yet the failure to cooperate multilaterally may also be a sign that international agreement would not be welfare-enhancing, raising questions about the desirability of the EU providing a global regime alone.
  • 438
    • 68349142949 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Democracy-Enhancing Multilateralism
    • note
    • Robert O. Keohane et al., Democracy-Enhancing Multilateralism, 63 INT'L ORG. 1 (2009) (discussing how multilateral institutions can enhance domestic constitutional democracy).
    • (2009) INT'L ORG , vol.63 , pp. 1
    • Keohane, R.O.1
  • 439
    • 84870773545 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Gelb, supra note 35.
  • 442
    • 84870769234 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • LEONARD, supra note 203 (arguing in this spirit).


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.