Ethnic differences in bone mass - Clinical implications

Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism

Volumn 97, Issue 12, 2012, Pages 4329-4340

  Leslie, William D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CALCITRIOL; CALCIUM; PARATHYROID HORMONE; TESTOSTERONE; VITAMIN D; SEX HORMONE;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; AMERICAN INDIAN; ANTHROPOMETRY; AREA UNDER THE CURVE; ASIAN; BODY COMPOSITION; BODY HEIGHT; BODY MASS; BODY SIZE; BODY WEIGHT; BONE DENSITY; BONE MASS; BONE SIZE; BONE STRENGTH; CALCIUM INTAKE; CAUCASIAN; DUAL ENERGY X RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; ETHNIC GROUP; EXERCISE; FRACTURE; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEREDITY; HIGH RESOLUTION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; HISPANIC; HUMAN; LIFESTYLE; MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM PARAMETERS; NEGRO; OSTEOPOROSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECEIVER OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; SMOKING; SOCIAL ASPECT; SOCIAL STATUS; SOCIAL STRESS; SUN EXPOSURE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; VITAMIN D METABOLISM; VOLUMETRY; CALCIUM SIGNALING; ETHNOLOGY; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETICS; HEALTH CARE DISPARITY; ONSET AGE; PHYSIOLOGY; STATISTICS;

AGE OF ONSET; BONE DENSITY; CALCIUM SIGNALING; ETHNIC GROUPS; FRACTURES, BONE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; GONADAL HORMONES; HEALTHCARE DISPARITIES; HUMANS; LIFE STYLE; OSTEOPOROSIS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84870758631     PISSN: 0021972X     EISSN: 19457197     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1210/jc.2012-2863     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. NIH Consensus Development Panel 2001 Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. JAMA 285:785-795
2. Kanis JA, Melton 3rd LJ, Christiansen C, Johnston CC, Khaltaev N 1994 The diagnosis of osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 9:1137-1141 (Pubitemid 24985932)
3. Johnell O, Kanis JA 2006 An estimate of the worldwide prevalence and disability associated with osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int 17:1726-1733 (Pubitemid 44607392)
4. El Hajj-Fuleihan G, Cauley J, Luckey M, Leslie WD, Walker MD, Geographic, ethnic variations in fracture risk: clinical implications. Program of the 94th Annual Meeting of The Endocrine Society, Houston, TX, 2012
5. Melton 3rd LJ 2003 Epidemiology worldwide. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 32:1-13, v
6. Burge R, Dawson-Hughes B, Solomon DH, Wong JB, King A, Tosteson A 2007 Incidence and economic burden of osteoporosis-related fractures in the United States, 2005-2025. J Bone Miner Res 22:465-475 (Pubitemid 46797130)
7. Kanis JA, Odén A, McCloskey EV, Johansson H, Wahl DA, Cooper C 2012 A systematic review of hip fracture incidence and probability of fracture worldwide. Osteoporos Int 23:2239-2256
8. Johnell O, Borgstrom F, Jonsson B, Kanis J 2007 Latitude, socioeconomic prosperity, mobile phones and hip fracture risk. Osteoporos Int 18:333-337 (Pubitemid 46233179)
9. Bow CH, Cheung E, Cheung CL, Xiao SM, Loong C, Soong C, Tan KC, Luckey MM, Cauley JA, Fujiwara S, Kung AW 2012 Ethnic difference of clinical vertebral fracture risk. Osteoporos Int 23:879-885
10. Cooper C, Cole ZA, Holroyd CR, Earl SC, Harvey NC, Dennison EM, Melton LJ, Cummings SR, Kanis JA 2011 Secular trends in the incidence of hip and other osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int 22:1277-1288
11. Leslie WD, Sadatsafavi M, Lix LM, Azimaee M, Morin S, Metge CJ, Caetano P 2011 Secular decreases in fracture rates 1986-2006 for Manitoba, Canada: a population-based analysis. Osteoporos Int 22:2137-2143
12. Jaglal SB, Weller I, Mamdani M, Hawker G, Kreder H, Jaakkimainen L, Adachi JD 2005 Population trends in BMD testing, treatment, and hip and wrist fracture rates: are the hip fracture projections wrong? J Bone Miner Res 20:898-905 (Pubitemid 40712812)
13. Kannus P, Palvanen M, Niemi S, Parkkari J, Järvinen M 2008 Stabilizing incidence of low-trauma ankle fractures in elderly people Finnish statistics in 1970-2006 and prediction for the future. Bone 43:340-342
14. Kannus P, Palvanen M, Niemi S, Sievänen H, Parkkari J 2009 Rate of proximal humeral fractures in older Finnish women between 1970 and 2007. Bone 44:656-659
15. Palvanen M, Kannus P, Niemi S, Parkkari J 2010 Secular trends in distal humeral fractures of elderly women: nationwide statistics in Finland between 1970 and 2007. Bone 46:1355-1358
16. Xia WB, He SL, Xu L, Liu AM, Jiang Y, Li M, Wang O, Xing XP, Sun Y, Cummings SR 28 September 2011 Rapidly increasing rates of hip fracture in Beijing, China. J Bone Miner Res doi: 10.1002/jbmr.519
17. Zingmond DS, Melton 3rd LJ, Silverman SL 2004 Increasing hip fracture incidence in California Hispanics, 1983 to 2000. Osteoporos Int 15:603-610 (Pubitemid 39121107)
18. Wright NC, Saag KG, Curtis JR, Smith WK, Kilgore ML, Morrisey MA, Yun H, Zhang J, Delzell ES 12 June 2012 Recent trends in hip fracture rates by race/ethnicity among older US adults. J Bone Miner Res doi: 10.1002/jbmr.1684
19. Megyesi MS, Hunt LM, Brody H 2011 A critical review of racial/ethnic variables in osteoporosis and bone density research. Osteoporos Int 22:1669-1679
20. Looker AC, Melton 3rd LJ, Borrud LG, Shepherd JA 2012 Changes in femur neck bone density in US adults between 1988-1994 and 2005-2008: demographic patterns and possible determinants. Osteoporos Int 23:771-780
21. Cummings SR, Liu L-Y, Cauley J, Hillier T, Hochberg MC 2011 Falling rates of fractures in the United States from 1992-1997 to 2002-2007. J Bone Miner Res 26(Suppl 1):S84
22. Looker AC, Flegal KM, Melton 3rd LJ 2007 Impact of increased overweight on the projected prevalence of osteoporosis in older women. Osteoporos Int 18:307-313 (Pubitemid 46233176)
23. Kanis JA 1994 Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis: synopsis of a WHO report. WHO Study Group. Osteoporos Int 4:368-381
24. Looker AC, Wahner HW, Dunn WL, Calvo MS, Harris TB, Heyse SP, Johnston Jr CC, Lindsay R 1998 Updated data on proximal femur bone mineral levels of US adults. Osteoporos Int 8:468-489 (Pubitemid 28486716)
25. Kanis JA, McCloskey EV, Johansson H, Oden A, Melton 3rd LJ, Khaltaev N 2008 A reference standard for the description of osteoporosis. Bone 42:467-475
26. Kanis JA, Bianchi G, Bilezikian JP, Kaufman JM, Khosla S, Orwoll E, Seeman E 2011 Towards a diagnostic and therapeutic consensus in male osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 22:2789-2798
27. Leslie WD, Adler RA, El-Hajj Fuleihan G, Hodsman AB, Kendler DL, McClung M, Miller PD, Watts NB 2006 Application of the 1994 WHO classification to populations other than postmenopausal Caucasian women. The 2005 ISCD official positions. J Clin Densitom 9:22-30 (Pubitemid 44218613)
28. Cummings SR, Bates D, Black DM 2002 Clinical use of bone densitometry: scientific review. JAMA 288:1889-1897 (Pubitemid 35168145)
29. Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H 1996 Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ 312:1254-1259 (Pubitemid 26147662)
30. Johnell O, Kanis JA, Oden A, Johansson H, De Laet C, Delmas P, Eisman JA, Fujiwara S, Kroger H, Mellstrom D, Meunier PJ, Melton 3rd LJ, O'Neill T, Pols H, Reeve J, Silman A, Tenenhouse A 2005 Predictive value of BMD for hip and other fractures. J Bone Miner Res 20:1185-1194 (Pubitemid 40863806)
31. Carter DR, Bouxsein ML, Marcus R 1992 New approaches for interpreting projected bone densitometry data. J Bone Miner Res 7:137-145
32. Cummings SR, Marcus R, Palermo L, Ensrud KE, Genant HK 1994 Does estimating volumetric bone density of the femoral neck improve the prediction of hip fracture? A prospective study. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. J Bone Miner Res 9:1429-1432 (Pubitemid 24268855)
33. Kanis JA on behalf of the World Health Organization Scientific Group 2007 Assessment of osteoporosis at the primary health-care level. Tech Rep. Sheffield, UK: World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Metabolic Bone Diseases
34. Looker AC, Melton 3rd LJ, Borrud LG, Shepherd JA 2012 Lumbar spine bone mineral density in US adults: demographic patterns and relationship with femur neck skeletal status. Osteoporos Int 23:1351-1360
35. 2011 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm (Last accessed July 3, 2012)
36. Walker MD, Babbar R, Opotowsky AR, Rohira A, Nabizadeh F, Badia MD, Chung W, Chiang J, Mediratta A, McMahon D, Liu G, Bilezikian JP 2006 A referent bone mineral density database for Chinese American women. Osteoporos Int 17:878-887 (Pubitemid 43781502)
37. Walker MD, Babbar R, Opotowsky A, McMahon DJ, Liu G, Bilezikian JP 2007 Determinants of bone mineral density in Chinese- American women. Osteoporos Int 18:471-478 (Pubitemid 46354920)
38. Nam HS, Shin MH, Zmuda JM, Leung PC, Barrett-Connor E, Orwoll ES, Cauley JA 2010 Race/ethnic differences in bone mineral densities in older men. Osteoporos Int 21:2115-2123
39. Hill DD, Cauley JA, Bunker CH, Baker CE, Patrick AL, Beckles GL, Wheeler VW, Zmuda JM 2008 Correlates of bone mineral density among postmenopausal women of African Caribbean ancestry: Tobago Women's Health Study. Bone 43:156-161
40. Chantler S, Dickie K, Goedecke JH, Levitt NS, Lambert EV, Evans J, Joffe Y, Micklesfield LK 2012 Site-specific differences in bone mineral density in black and white premenopausal South African women. Osteoporos Int 23:533-542
41. Barrett-Connor E, Siris ES, Wehren LE, Miller PD, Abbott TA, Berger ML, Santora AC, Sherwood LM 2005 Osteoporosis and fracture risk in women of different ethnic groups. J Bone Miner Res 20:185-194
42. Cauley JA, Lui LY, Ensrud KE, Zmuda JM, Stone KL, Hochberg MC, Cummings SR 2005 Bone mineral density and the risk of incident nonspinal fractures in black and white women. JAMA 293:2102-2108 (Pubitemid 40617062)
43. Lunt M, Felsenberg D, Reeve J, Benevolenskaya L, Cannata J, Dequeker J, Dodenhof C, Falch JA, Masaryk P, Pols HA, Poor G, Reid DM, Scheidt-Nave C, Weber K, Varlow J, Kanis JA, O'Neill TW, Silman AJ 1997 Bone density variation and its effects on risk of vertebral deformity in men and women studied in thirteen European centers: the EVOS Study. J Bone Miner Res 12:1883-1894 (Pubitemid 27500200)
44. Lunt M, Felsenberg D, Adams J, Benevolenskaya L, Cannata J, Dequeker J, Dodenhof C, Falch JA, Johnell O, Khaw KT, Masaryk P, Pols H, Poor G, Reid D, Scheidt-Nave C, Weber K, Silman AJ, Reeve J 1997 Population-based geographic variations in DXA bone density in Europe: the EVOS Study. European Vertebral Osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 7:175-189 (Pubitemid 27226347)
45. Gravlee CC 2009 How race becomes biology: embodiment of social inequality. Am J Phys Anthropol 139:47-57
46. Chen R, Corona E, Sikora M, Dudley JT, Morgan AA, Moreno- Estrada A, Nilsen GB, Ruau D, Lincoln SE, Bustamante CD, Butte AJ 2012 Type 2 diabetes risk alleles demonstrate extreme directional differentiation among human populations, compared to other diseases. PLoS Genet 8:e1002621
47. Ralston SH, Uitterlinden AG 2010 Genetics of osteoporosis. Endocr Rev 31:629-662
48. Zhai G, Andrew T, Kato BS, Blake GM, Spector TD 2009 Genetic and environmental determinants on bone loss in postmenopausal Caucasian women: a 14-year longitudinal twin study. Osteoporos Int 20:949-953
49. Wang TJ, Zhang F, Richards JB, Kestenbaum B, van Meurs JB, Berry D, Kiel DP, Streeten EA, Ohlsson C, Koller DL, Peltonen L, Cooper JD, O'Reilly PF, Houston DK, Glazer NL, Vandenput L, Peacock M, Shi J, Rivadeneira F, McCarthy MI, Anneli P, de Boer IH, Mangino M, Kato B, Smyth DJ, Booth SL, Jacques PF, Burke GL, Goodarzi M, Cheung CL, Wolf M, Rice K, Goltzman D, Hidiroglou N, Ladouceur M, Wareham NJ, Hocking LJ, et al. 2010 Common genetic determinants of vitamin D insufficiency: a genome- wide association study. Lancet 376:180-188
50. Speliotes EK, Willer CJ, Berndt SI, Monda KL, Thorleifsson G, Jackson AU, Lango Allen H, Lindgren CM, Luan J, Mägi R, Randall JC, Vedantam S, Winkler TW, Qi L, Workalemahu T, Heid IM, Steinthorsdottir V, Stringham HM, Weedon MN, Wheeler E, Wood AR, Ferreira T, Weyant RJ, Segrè AV, Estrada K, Liang L, Nemesh J, Park JH, Gustafsson S, Kilpeläinen TO, Yang J, Bouatia- Naji N, Esko T, et al. 2010 Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index. Nat Genet 42:937-948
51. Lango Allen H, Estrada K, Lettre G, Berndt SI, Weedon MN, Rivadeneira F, Willer CJ, Jackson AU, Vedantam S, Raychaudhuri S, Ferreira T, Wood AR, Weyant RJ, Segrè AV, Speliotes EK, Wheeler E, Soranzo N, Park JH, Yang J, Gudbjartsson D, Heard-Costa NL, Randall JC, Qi L, Vernon Smith A, Mägi R, Pastinen T, Liang L, Heid IM, Luan J, Thorleifsson G, Winkler TW, Goddard ME, Sin Lo K, Palmer C, et al. 2010 Hundreds of variants clustered in genomic loci and biological pathways affect human height. Nature 467:832-838
52. Wagner H, Melhus H, Pedersen NL, Michaëlsson K 2009 Heritability of impaired balance: a nationwide cohort study in twins. Osteoporos Int 20:577-583
53. Estrada K, Styrkarsdottir U, Evangelou E, Hsu YH, Duncan EL, Ntzani EE, Oei L, Albagha OM, Amin N, Kemp JP, Koller DL, Li G, Liu CT, Minster RL, Moayyeri A, Vandenput L, Willner D, Xiao SM, Yerges-Armstrong LM, Zheng HF, Alonso N, Eriksson J, Kammerer CM, Kaptoge SK, Leo PJ, Thorleifsson G, Wilson SG, Wilson JF, Aalto V, Alen M, Aragaki AK, Aspelund T, Center JR, Dailiana Z, Duggan DJ, Garcia M, Garcia-Giralt N, et al. 2012 Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies 56 bone mineral density loci and reveals 14 loci associated with risk of fracture. Nat Genet 44:491-501
54. Chen Z, Qi L, Beck TJ, Robbins J, Wu G, Lewis CE, Cauley JA, Wright NC, Seldin MF 2011 Stronger bone correlates with African admixture in African-American women. J Bone Miner Res 26:2307-2316
55. Leslie WD, Tsang JF, Lix LM 2008 The effect of total hip bone area on osteoporosis diagnosis and fractures. J Bone Miner Res 23:1468-1476
56. Liao EY, Wu XP, Liao HJ, Zhang H, Peng J 2004 Effects of skeletal size of the lumbar spine on areal bone density, volumetric bone density, and the diagnosis of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women in China. J Bone Miner Metab 22:270-277 (Pubitemid 38660960)
57. Zhang YY, Liu PY, Lu Y, Davies KM, Dvornyk V, Recker RR, Deng HW 2005 Race and sex differences and contribution of height: a study on bone size in healthy Caucasians and Chinese. Am J Hum Biol 17:568-575 (Pubitemid 41684271)
58. Dvornyk V, Liu PY, Long JR, Zhang YY, Lei SF, Recker RR, Deng HW2005 Contribution of genotype and ethnicity to bone mineral density variation in Caucasians and Chinese: a test for five candidate genes for bone mass. Chin Med J Engl 118:1235-1244 (Pubitemid 41150344)
59. Wang XF, Seeman E 2012 Epidemiology and structural basis of racial differences in fragility fractures in Chinese and Caucasians. Osteoporos Int 23:411-422
60. Luo ZC, Low LC, Karlberg J 1999 A comparison of target height estimated and final height attained between Swedish and Hong Kong Chinese children. Acta Paediatr 88:248-252 (Pubitemid 29144128)
61. Wong GW, Leung SS, Law WY, Yeung VT, Lau JT, Yeung WK 1996 Secular trend in the sexual maturation of southern Chinese boys. Acta Paediatr 85:620-621 (Pubitemid 26178513)
62. Huen KF, Leung SS, Lau JT, Cheung AY, Leung NK, Chiu MC 1997 Secular trend in the sexual maturation of southern Chinese girls. Acta Paediatr 86:1121-1124 (Pubitemid 27443723)
63. Finkelstein JS, Lee ML, Sowers M, Ettinger B, Neer RM, Kelsey JL, Cauley JA, Huang MH, Greendale GA 2002 Ethnic variation in bone density in premenopausal and early perimenopausal women: effects of anthropometric and lifestyle factors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:3057-3067 (Pubitemid 34816345)
64. Andersen S, Boeskov E, Laurberg P 2005 Ethnic differences in bone mineral density between Inuit and Caucasians in north Greenland are caused by differences in body size. J Clin Densitom 8:409-414 (Pubitemid 41690402)
65. Roy D, Swarbrick C, King Y, Pye S, Adams J, Berry J, Silman A, O'Neill T 2005 Differences in peak bone mass in women of European and South Asian origin can be explained by differences in body size. Osteoporos Int 16:1254-1262 (Pubitemid 41396954)
66. Leslie WD, Derksen S, Metge C, Lix LM, Salamon EA, Wood Steiman P, Roos LL 2004 Fracture risk among First Nations people: a retrospective matched cohort study. CMAJ 171:869-873 (Pubitemid 39371554)
67. Leslie WD, Weiler HA, Lix LM, Nyomba BL 2008 Body composition and bone density in Canadian White and Aboriginal women: the First Nations Bone Health Study. Bone 42:990-995
68. Travison TG, Araujo AB, Esche GR, Beck TJ, McKinlay JB 2008 Lean mass and not fat mass is associated with male proximal femur strength. J Bone Miner Res 23:189-198 (Pubitemid 351160032)
69. Castro JP, Joseph LA, Shin JJ, Arora SK, Nicasio J, Shatzkes J, Raklyar I, Erlikh I, Pantone V, Bahtiyar G, Chandler L, Pabon L, Choudhry S, Ghadiri N, Gosukonda P, Muniyappa R, von-Gicyzki H, McFarlane SI 2005 Differential effect of obesity on bone mineral density in White, Hispanic and African American women: a crosssectional study. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2:9
70. Travison TG, Chiu GR, McKinlay JB, Araujo AB 2011 Accounting for racial/ethnic variation in bone mineral content and density: the competing influences of socioeconomic factors, body composition, health and lifestyle, and circulating androgens and estrogens. Osteoporos Int 22:2645-2654
71. Walker MD, Novotny R, Bilezikian JP, Weaver CM 2008 Race and diet interactions in the acquisition, maintenance, and loss of bone. J Nutr 138:1256S-1260S (Pubitemid 351769160)
72. Ginde AA, Liu MC, Camargo Jr CA 2009 Demographic differences and trends of vitamin D insufficiency in the US population, 1988-2004. Arch Intern Med 169:626-632
73. Cauley JA, Danielson ME, Boudreau R, Barbour KE, Horwitz MJ, Bauer DC, Ensrud KE, Manson JE, Wactawski-Wende J, Shikany JM, Jackson RD 2011 Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and clinical fracture risk in a multiethnic cohort of women: the Women's Health Initiative (WHI). J Bone Miner Res 26:2378-2388
74. Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Dietrich T, Orav EJ, Dawson-Hughes B 2004 Positive association between 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels and bone mineral density: a population-based study of younger and older adults. Am J Med 116:634-639 (Pubitemid 38490539)
75. Luborsky JL, Meyer P, Sowers MF, Gold EB, Santoro N 2003 Premature menopause in a multi-ethnic population study of the menopause transition. Hum Reprod 18:199-206 (Pubitemid 36138877)
76. Orwoll ES, Nielson CM, Labrie F, Barrett-Connor E, Cauley JA, Cummings SR, Ensrud K, Karlsson M, Lau E, Leung PC, Lunggren O, Mellström D, Patrick AL, Stefanick ML, Nakamura K, Yoshimura N, Zmuda J, Vandenput L, Ohlsson C 2010 Evidence for geographical and racial variation in serum sex steroid levels in older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:E151-E160
77. Leslie WD, Derksen S, Prior HJ, Lix LM, Metge C, O'neil J 2006 The interaction of ethnicity and chronic disease as risk factors for osteoporotic fractures: a comparison in Canadian Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals. Osteoporos Int 17:1358-1368
78. Commission on Social Determinants of Health 2008 Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Final Report of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health. Geneva: World Health Organization
79. Brennan SL, Pasco JA, Urquhart DM, Oldenburg B, Hanna F, Wluka AE 2009 The association between socioeconomic status and osteoporotic fracture in population-based adults: a systematic review. Osteoporos Int 20:1487-1497
80. Myong JP, Kim HR, Choi SE, Koo JW 2012 The effect of socioeconomic position on bone health among Koreans by gender and menopausal status. Calcif Tissue Int 90:488-495
81. Crandall CJ, Miller-Martinez D, Greendale GA, Binkley N, Seeman TE, Karlamangla AS 2012 Socioeconomic status, race, and bone turnover in the Midlife in the US Study. Osteoporos Int 23:1503-1512
82. Subramanian SV, Özaltin E, Finlay JE 2011 Height of nations: a socioeconomic analysis of cohort differences and patterns among womenin 54 low- to middle-income countries. PLoSOne6:e18962
83. Cauley JA 2011 Defining ethnic and racial differences in osteoporosis and fragility fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res 469:1891-1899
84. Cauley JA, Wampler NS, Barnhart JM, Wu L, Allison M, Chen Z, Hendrix S, Robbins J, Jackson RD 2008 Incidence of fractures compared to cardiovascular disease and breast cancer: the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Osteoporos Int 19:1717-1723
85. Wei GS, Jackson JL, Herbers Jr JE 2003 Ethnic disparity in the treatment of women with established low bone mass. J Am Med Womens Assoc 58:173-177
86. Miller RG, Ashar BH, Cohen J, Camp M, Coombs C, Johnson E, Schneyer CR 2005 Disparities in osteoporosis screening between at-risk African-American and white women. J Gen Intern Med 20:847-851 (Pubitemid 41725701)
87. Neuner JM, Zhang X, Sparapani R, Laud PW, Nattinger AB 2007 Racial and socioeconomic disparities in bone density testing before and after hip fracture. J Gen Intern Med 22:1239-1245 (Pubitemid 47247292)
88. Demeter S, Leslie WD, Lix L, MacWilliam L, Finlayson GS, Reed M2007 The effect of socioeconomic status on bone density testing in a public health-care system. Osteoporos Int 18:153-158 (Pubitemid 46090219)
89. Leslie WD, Brennan SL, Prior HJ, Lix LM, Metge C, Elias B 2012 The post-fracture care gap among Canadian First Nations peoples: a retrospective cohort study. Osteoporos Int 23:929-936
90. Dawson-Hughes B, Looker AC, Tosteson AN, Johansson H, Kanis JA, Melton 3rd LJ 2012 The potential impact of the National Osteoporosis Foundation guidance on treatment eligibility in the USA: an update in NHANES 2005-2008. Osteoporos Int 23:811-820
91. Lochmüller EM, Miller P, Bürklein D, Wehr U, Rambeck W, Eckstein F 2000 In situ femoral dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry related to ash weight, bone size and density, and its relationship with mechanical failure loads of the proximal femur. Osteoporos Int 11:361-367 (Pubitemid 30417190)
92. Cranney A, Jamal SA, Tsang JF, Josse RG, Leslie WD 2007 Low bone mineral density and fracture burden in postmenopausal women. CMAJ 177:575-580 (Pubitemid 47437054)
93. Siris ES, Chen YT, Abbott TA, Barrett-Connor E, Miller PD, Wehren LE, Berger ML 2004 Bone mineral density thresholds for pharmacological intervention to prevent fractures. Arch Intern Med 164:1108-1112 (Pubitemid 38668990)
94. Stone KL, Seeley DG, Lui LY, Cauley JA, Ensrud K, Browner WS, Nevitt MC, Cummings SR 2003 BMD at multiple sites and risk of fracture of multiple types: long-term results from the Study of Osteoporotic Fractures. J Bone Miner Res 18:1947-1954 (Pubitemid 37377443)
95. Beck TJ, Ruff CB, Warden KE, Scott Jr WW, Rao GU 1990 Predicting femoral neck strength from bone mineral data. A structural approach. Invest Radiol 25:6-18 (Pubitemid 20040519)
96. Ishii S, Cauley JA, Greendale GA, Danielson ME, Safaei Nili N, Karlamangla A 2012 Ethnic differences in composite indices of femoral neck strength. Osteoporos Int 23:1381-1390
97. Faulkner KG, Wacker WK, Barden HS, Simonelli C, Burke PK, Ragi S, Del Rio L 2006 Femur strength index predicts hip fracture independent of bone density and hip axis length. Osteoporos Int 17:593-599
98. Brownbill RA, Ilich JZ 2003 Hip geometry and its role in fracture: what do we know so far? Curr Osteoporos Rep 1:25-31
99. Cummings SR, Cauley JA, Palermo L, Ross PD, Wasnich RD, Black D, Faulkner KG 1994 Racial differences in hip axis lengths might explain racial differences in rates of hip fracture. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. Osteoporos Int 4:226-229 (Pubitemid 24220086)
100. Chin K, Evans MC, Cornish J, Cundy T, Reid IR 1997 Differences in hip axis and femoral neck length in premenopausal women of Polynesian, Asian and European origin. Osteoporos Int 7:344-347 (Pubitemid 27346415)
101. Dibba B, Prentice A, Laskey MA, Stirling DM, Cole TJ 1999 An investigation of ethnic differences in bone mineral, hip axis length, calcium metabolism and bone turnover between West African and Caucasian adults living in the United Kingdom. Ann Hum Biol 26:229-242 (Pubitemid 29235465)
102. Greendale GA, Young JT, Huang MH, Bucur A, Wang Y, Seeman T 2003 Hip axis length in mid-life Japanese and Caucasian U.S. residents: no evidence for an ethnic difference. Osteoporos Int 14:320-325 (Pubitemid 40824248)
103. Wang MC, Aguirre M, Bhudhikanok GS, Kendall CG, Kirsch S, Marcus R, Bachrach LK 1997 Bone mass and hip axis length in healthy Asian, black, Hispanic, and white American youths. J Bone Miner Res 12:1922-1935 (Pubitemid 27500204)
104. Clark P, Tesoriero LJ, Morton DJ, Talavera JO, Karlamangla A, Schneider DL, Wooten WJ, Barrett-Connor E 2008 Hip axis length variation: its correlation with anthropometric measurements in women from three ethnic groups. Osteoporos Int 19:1301-1306
105. Patsch JM, Burghardt AJ, Kazakia G, Majumdar S 2011 Noninvasive imaging of bone microarchitecture. Ann NY Acad Sci 1240:77-87
106. Walker MD, Liu XS, Stein E, Zhou B, Bezati E, McMahon DJ, Udesky J, Liu G, Shane E, Guo XE, Bilezikian JP 2011 Differences in bone microarchitecture between postmenopausal Chinese- American and white women. J Bone Miner Res 26:1392-1398
107. Walker MD, McMahon DJ, Udesky J, Liu G, Bilezikian JP 2009 Application of high-resolution skeletal imaging to measurements of volumetric BMD and skeletal microarchitecture in Chinese- American and white women: explanation of a paradox. J Bone Miner Res 24:1953-1959
108. Liu XS, Walker MD, McMahon DJ, Udesky J, Liu G, Bilezikian JP, Guo XE 2011 Better skeletal microstructure confers greater mechanical advantages in Chinese-American women versus white women. J Bone Miner Res 26:1783-1792
109. Ishii S, Greendale GA, Cauley JA, Crandall CJ, Huang MH, Danielson ME, Karlamangla AS 3 August 2012 Fracture risk assessment without race/ethnicity information. J Clin Endocrinol Metab doi: 10.1210/jc.2012-1997
110. Cauley JA, El-Hajj Fuleihan G, Luckey MM 2011 FRAX International Task Force of the 2010 Joint International Society for Clinical Densitometry, International Osteoporosis Foundation Position Development Conference. J Clin Densitom 14:237-239
111. Leslie WD, Lentle B 2006 Race/ethnicity and fracture risk assessment: an issue that is more than skin deep. J Clin Densitom 9:406-412 (Pubitemid 44693405)