Epidemiology and structural basis of racial differences in fragility fractures in Chinese and Caucasians

Osteoporosis International

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 411-422

  Wang, X F ^a   Seeman, E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

Bone microarchitecture; Caucasian; Chinese; pQCT

Indexed keywords

BIOMECHANICS; BONE DENSITY; BONE FRAGILITY; BONE MATRIX; BONE MINERALIZATION; BONE REMODELING; BONE STRENGTH; CAUCASIAN; CHINESE; CORTICAL BONE; EPIDEMIC; FOREARM FRACTURE; FRAGILITY FRACTURE; HIP FRACTURE; HUMAN; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; ONSET AGE; OSSIFICATION; OSTEOLYSIS; PERIOSTEUM; POROSITY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RACE DIFFERENCE; REVIEW; THICKNESS; TRABECULAR BONE; VERTEBRA FRACTURE;

ASIAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; BONE DENSITY; BONE DEVELOPMENT; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; HIP FRACTURES; HUMANS; OSTEOPOROTIC FRACTURES; SPINAL FRACTURES;

EID: 84857355156     PISSN: 0937941X     EISSN: 14332965     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00198-011-1739-2     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. EM Lau HH Chan J Woo F Lin D Black M Nevitt PC Leung 1996 Normal ranges for vertebral height ratios and prevalence of vertebral fracture in Hong Kong Chinese: a comparison with American Caucasians J Bone Miner Res 11 1364 1368 8864912 1:STN:280:DyaK2s%2FhvVaqtA%3D%3D 10.1002/jbmr.5650110922
2. PD Ross S Fujiwara C Huang JW Davis RS Epstein RD Wasnich K Kodama LJ Melton 3rd 1995 Vertebral fracture prevalence in women in Hiroshima compared to Caucasians or Japanese in the US Int J Epidemiol 24 1171 1177 8824859 1:STN:280:DyaK28vit1ansA%3D%3D 10.1093/ije/24.6.1171
3. AW Kung 2004 Epidemiology and diagnostic approaches to vertebral fractures in Asia J Bone Miner Metab 22 170 175 15108057 10.1007/s00774-003- 0467-x
4. SW Tsang CH Bow EY Chu SC Yeung CC Soong AW Kung 2011 Clinical risk factor assessment had better discriminative ability than bone mineral density in identifying subjects with vertebral fracture Osteoporos Int 22 667 674 20503038 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3M7gs1yluw%3D%3D 10.1007/s00198-010-1260-z
5. X Ling SR Cummings Q Mingwei Z Xihe C Xioashu M Nevitt K Stone 2000 Vertebral fractures in Beijing, China: the Beijing Osteoporosis Project J Bone Miner Res 15 2019 2025 11028456 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3cvnslSrtA%3D%3D 10.1359/jbmr.2000.15.10.2019
6. LJ Melton 3rd SH Kan MA Frye HW Wahner WM O'Fallon BL Riggs 1989 Epidemiology of vertebral fractures in women Am J Epidemiol 129 1000 1011 2784934
7. MC Nevitt SR Cummings KL Stone, et al. 2005 Risk factors for a first-incident radiographic vertebral fracture in women > or =65 years of age: the study of osteoporotic fractures J Bone Miner Res 20 131 140 15619679 10.1359/jbmr.2005.20.1.131
8. K Tsai S Twu P Chieng R Yang T Lee 1996 Prevalence of vertebral fractures in chinese men and women in urban Taiwanese communities Calcif Tissue Int 59 249 253 8781047 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XlvFCnur4%3D 10.1007/s002239900118
9. Z An D Yang Z Zhang J Jiang, et al. 2002 Epidemiologic survey and analysis of osteoporotic vertebral fracture Chin J Osteoporosis 8 82 83
10. N Li P Ou H Zhu D Yang, et al. 2003 Study on prevalence rate of fractures in the middle-aged and elderly population in parts of China Chin J Clin Rehabil 7 1284 1285
11. L Xu A Lu X Zhao X Chen SR Cummings 1996 Very low rates of hip fracture in Beijing, People's Republic of China the Beijing Osteoporosis Project Am J Epidemiol 144 901 907 8890668 1:STN:280:DyaK2s%2FksFOgtg%3D%3D
12. L Yan B Zhou A Prentice X Wang MH Golden 1999 Epidemiological study of hip fracture in Shenyang, People's Republic of China Bone 24 151 155 9951786 1:STN:280:DyaK1M7jsFamtQ%3D%3D 10.1016/S8756-3282(98)00168-9
13. W Xia S He A Liu L Xu 2008 Epidemiological study of hip fracture in Beijing, China Bone 43 S13 10.1016/j.bone.2008.07.011
14. EM Lau JK Lee P Suriwongpaisal SM Saw S De Das A Khir P Sambrook 2001 The incidence of hip fracture in four Asian countries: the Asian Osteoporosis Study (AOS) Osteoporos Int 12 239 243 11315243 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M3oslKrtA%3D%3D 10.1007/s001980170135
15. WC Chie RS Yang JP Liu KS Tsai 2004 High incidence rate of hip fracture in Taiwan: estimated from a nationwide health insurance database Osteoporos Int 15 998 1002 15156304 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2crps1Kktw%3D%3D 10.1007/s00198-004-1651-0
16. LK Koh SM Saw JJ Lee KH Leong J Lee 2001 Hip fracture incidence rates in Singapore 1991-1998 Osteoporos Int 12 311 318 11420781 1:STN:280: DC%2BD3MzmtVCqsg%3D%3D 10.1007/s001980170121
17. Melton LJ, 3rd, Kearns AE, Atkinson EJ, Bolander ME, Achenbach SJ, Huddleston JM, Therneau TM, Leibson CL (2009) Secular trends in hip fracture incidence and recurrence. Osteoporos Int 20:687-694
18. Finsen V, Johnsen LG, Trano G, Hansen B, Sneve KS (2004) Hip fracture incidence in central norway: a followup study. Clin Orthop Relat Res 173-178
19. AA Fisher ED O'Brien MW Davis 2009 Trends in hip fracture epidemiology in Australia: possible impact of bisphosphonates and hormone replacement therapy Bone 45 246 253 19409518 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXotFylsbw%3D 10.1016/j.bone.2009.04. 244
20. EM Lau C Cooper H Fung D Lam KK Tsang 1999 Hip fracture in Hong Kong over the last decade-a comparison with the UK J Public Health Med 21 249 250 10528950 1:STN:280:DyaK1Mvls1aiug%3D%3D 10.1093/pubmed/21.3.249
21. AW Kung KK Lee AY Ho G Tang KD Luk 2007 Ten-year risk of osteoporotic fractures in postmenopausal Chinese women according to clinical risk factors and BMD T-scores: a prospective study J Bone Miner Res 22 1080 1087 17371165 10.1359/jbmr.070320
22. H Hagino K Yamamoto H Ohshiro T Nakamura H Kishimoto T Nose 1999 Changing incidence of hip, distal radius, and proximal humerus fractures in Tottori Prefecture, Japan Bone 24 265 270 10071921 1:STN:280:DyaK1M7ntVWgtQ%3D%3D 10.1016/S8756-3282(98)00175-6
23. CM Lofthus F Frihagen HE Meyer L Nordsletten K Melhuus JA Falch 2008 Epidemiology of distal forearm fractures in Oslo, Norway Osteoporos Int 19 781 786 17985071 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1crotFymsw%3D%3D 10.1007/s00198-007-0499-5
24. PC Wong 1965 Epidemiology of fractures of bones of the forearm in a mixed South East Asian community, Singapore: 1. A preliminary study Acta Orthop Scand 36 153 167 5829696 1:STN:280:DyaF28%2FgvVensg%3D%3D 10.3109/17453676508989381
25. MR Griffin WA Ray RL Fought LJ Melton 3rd 1992 Black-white differences in fracture rates Am J Epidemiol 136 1378 1385 1488964 1:STN:280: DyaK3s7kt1Okug%3D%3D
26. EM Lau J Woo H Chan MK Chan J Griffith YH Chan PC Leung 1998 The health consequences of vertebral deformity in elderly Chinese men and women Calcif Tissue Int 63 1 4 9632838 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXktFOnsLc%3D 10.1007/s002239900480
27. JR Center TV Nguyen D Schneider PN Sambrook JA Eisman 1999 Mortality after all major types of osteoporotic fracture in men and women: an observational study Lancet 353 878 882 10093980 1:STN:280:DyaK1M7ptFOlug%3D%3D 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09075-8
28. SJ Jacobsen J Goldberg TP Miles JA Brody W Stiers AA Rimm 1992 Race and sex differences in mortality following fracture of the hip Am J Public Health 82 1147 1150 1636840 1:STN:280:DyaK38zktl2msw%3D%3D 10.2105/AJPH.82.8.1147
29. C Cooper EJ Atkinson SJ Jacobsen WM O'Fallon LJ Melton 3rd 1993 Population-based study of survival after osteoporotic fractures Am J Epidemiol 137 1001 1005 8317445 1:STN:280:DyaK3szgsVeltw%3D%3D
30. Y Koike H Imaizumi E Takahashi Y Matsubara H Komatsu 1999 Determining factors of mortality in the elderly with hip fractures Tohoku J Exp Med 188 139 142 10526875 1:STN:280:DyaK1Mvltl2quw%3D%3D 10.1620/tjem.188.139
31. S Chariyalertsak P Suriyawongpisal A Thakkinstain 2001 Mortality after hip fractures in Thailand Int Orthop 25 294 297 11794262 1:STN:280: DC%2BD38%2FmsFKlsg%3D%3D 10.1007/s002640100270
32. S Muraki S Yamamoto H Ishibashi K Nakamura 2006 Factors associated with mortality following hip fracture in Japan J Bone Miner Metab 24 100 104 16502115 10.1007/s00774-005-0654-z
33. A Nather CS Seow P Iau A Chan 1995 Morbidity and mortality for elderly patients with fractured neck of femur treated by hemiarthroplasty Injury 26 187 190 7744476 1:STN:280:DyaK2M3mtlWgug%3D%3D 10.1016/0020-1383(95)93500-H
34. MQ Gong YJ Mao J Wei MY Wang J Bai QL Fan D Li 2005 Outcome of hip fractures after traction treatment in elderly Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 85 3263 3265 16409816
35. LZ Luo L Xu 2005 Study on direct economic-burden and its risk factors of osteoporotic hip fracture Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 26 669 672 16471214
36. EM Lau 1997 Epidemiology of osteoporosis in urbanized Asian populations Osteoporos Int 7 Suppl 3 S91 S95 9536311 10.1007/BF03194351
37. KM Sanders GC Nicholson AM Ugoni JA Pasco E Seeman MA Kotowicz 1999 Health burden of hip and other fractures in Australia beyond 2000. Projections based on the Geelong Osteoporosis Study Med J Aust 170 467 470 10376021 1:STN:280:DyaK1MzgsVejuw%3D%3D
38. GS Bhudhikanok MC Wang K Eckert C Matkin R Marcus LK Bachrach 1996 Differences in bone mineral in young Asian and Caucasian Americans may reflect differences in bone size J Bone Miner Res 11 1545 1556 8889856 1:STN:280:DyaK2s%2FksVOrtw%3D%3D 10.1002/jbmr.5650111023
39. RP Heaney S Abrams B Dawson-Hughes A Looker R Marcus V Matkovic C Weaver 2000 Peak bone mass Osteoporos Int 11 985 1009 11256898 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD3MXlsVyktro%3D 10.1007/s001980070020
40. V Matkovic T Jelic GM Wardlaw JZ Ilich PK Goel JK Wright MB Andon KT Smith RP Heaney 1994 Timing of peak bone mass in Caucasian females and its implication for the prevention of osteoporosis. Inference from a cross-sectional model J Clin Invest 93 799 808 8113412 1:STN:280:DyaK2c7lslWjsg%3D%3D 10.1172/JCI117034
41. DA Bailey 1997 The Saskatchewan Pediatric Bone Mineral Accrual Study: bone mineral acquisition during the growing years Int J Sports Med 18 Suppl 3 S191 S194 9272847 10.1055/s-2007-972713
42. M Gunnes 1994 Bone mineral density in the cortical and trabecular distal forearm in healthy children and adolescents Acta Paediatr 83 463 467 8086720 1:STN:280:DyaK2czmvFWlsw%3D%3D 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1994.tb13060.x
43. RR Recker KM Davies SM Hinders RP Heaney MR Stegman DB Kimmel 1992 Bone gain in young adult women JAMA 268 2403 2408 1404797 1:STN:280: DyaK3s%2FitFKhsw%3D%3D 10.1001/jama.1992.03490170075028
44. T Lloyd MA Petit HM Lin TJ Beck 2004 Lifestyle factors and the development of bone mass and bone strength in young women J Pediatr 144 776 782 15192626
45. HA McKay MA Petit KM Khan RW Schutz 2000 Lifestyle determinants of bone mineral: a comparison between prepubertal Asian- and Caucasian-Canadian boys and girls Calcif Tissue Int 66 320 324 10773099 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXivVChu7g%3D 10.1007/s002230010067
46. M Horlick J Thornton J Wang LS Levine B Fedun RN Pierson Jr 2000 Bone mineral in prepubertal children: gender and ethnicity J Bone Miner Res 15 1393 1397 10893689 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M%2FhtF2jtw%3D%3D 10.1359/jbmr.2000.15.7.1393
47. LK Bachrach T Hastie MC Wang B Narasimhan R Marcus 1999 Bone mineral acquisition in healthy Asian, Hispanic, black, and Caucasian youth: a longitudinal study J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84 4702 4712 10599739 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXotVGqsb8%3D 10.1210/jc.84.12.4702
48. Burrows M, Baxter-Jones A, Mirwald R, Macdonald H, McKay H (2009) Bone mineral accrual across growth in a mixed-ethnic group of children: are asian children disadvantaged from an early age? Calcif Tissue Int
49. CM Weaver LD McCabe GP McCabe R Novotny M Van Loan S Going V Matkovic C Boushey DA Savaiano 2007 Bone mineral and predictors of bone mass in white, Hispanic, and Asian early pubertal girls Calcif Tissue Int 81 352 363 17989943 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXht1Oks77N 10.1007/s00223-007-9074-5
50. W Yu M Qin L Xu C van Kuijk X Meng X Xing J Cao HK Genant 1999 Normal changes in spinal bone mineral density in a Chinese population: assessment by quantitative computed tomography and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry Osteoporos Int 9 179 187 10367047 1:STN:280:DyaK1M3psFWhsQ%3D%3D 10.1007/s001980050133
51. JE Block R Smith CC Glueer P Steiger B Ettinger HK Genant 1989 Models of spinal trabecular bone loss as determined by quantitative computed tomography J Bone Miner Res 4 249 257 2728928 1:STN:280:DyaL1M3mvFOksw%3D%3D 10.1002/jbmr.5650040218
52. SM Garn EM Pao ME Rihl 1964 Compact bone in Chinese and Japanese Science 143 1439 1440 14107445 1:STN:280:DyaF2c%2FmsFWgtA%3D%3D 10.1126/science.143. 3613.1439
53. H Macdonald S Kontulainen M Petit P Janssen H McKay 2006 Bone strength and its determinants in pre- and early pubertal boys and girls Bone 39 598 608 16600704 10.1016/j.bone.2006.02.057
54. Wang XF, Wang Q, Ghasem-Zadeh A, Iuliano-Burns S, Seeman E (2009) Differences in macro and microarchitecture of the appendicular skeleton in Chinese and Caucasian females originate during growth. J Bone Miner Res 24:
55. MD Walker DJ McMahon J Udesky G Liu JP Bilezikian 2009 Application of high-resolution skeletal imaging to measurements of volumetric BMD and skeletal microarchitecture in Chinese-American and white women: explanation of a paradox J Bone Miner Res 24 1953 1959 20001598 10.1359/jbmr.090528
56. XF Wang Q Wang A Ghasem-Zadeh A Evans C McLeod S Iuliano-Burns E Seeman 2009 Differences in macro- and microarchitecture of the appendicular skeleton in young Chinese and white women J Bone Miner Res 24 1946 1952 19459783 10.1359/jbmr.090529
57. HV Meredith 1978 Secular change in sitting height and lower limb height of children, youths, and young adults of Afro-black, European, and Japanese ancestry Growth 42 37 41 669398 1:STN:280:DyaE1c3hs1altw%3D%3D
58. E Seeman 1997 From density to structure: growing up and growing old on the surfaces of bone J Bone Miner Res 12 509 521 9101362 1:STN:280: DyaK2s3ls1Sgsw%3D%3D 10.1359/jbmr.1997.12.4.509
59. HM Ma ML Du XP Luo, et al. 2009 Onset of breast and pubic hair development and menses in urban chinese girls Pediatrics 124 e269 e277 19651567 10.1542/peds.2008-2638
60. SS Sun CM Schubert WC Chumlea AF Roche HE Kulin PA Lee JH Himes AS Ryan 2002 National estimates of the timing of sexual maturation and racial differences among US children Pediatrics 110 911 919 12415029 10.1542/peds.110.5.911
61. KF Huen SS Leung JT Lau AY Cheung NK Leung MC Chiu 1997 Secular trend in the sexual maturation of southern Chinese girls Acta Paediatr 86 1121 1124 9350897 1:STN:280:DyaK1c%2FhtVersg%3D%3D 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1997.tb14820.x
62. WA Marshall JM Tanner 1968 Growth and physiological development during adolescence Annu Rev Med 19 283 300 4297619 1:STN:280:DyaF1c3nvFWgtw%3D%3D 10.1146/annurev.me.19.020168.001435
63. R Novotny J Davis PD Ross RD Wasnich 1996 Adolescent milk consumption, menarche, birth weight, and ethnicity influence height of women in Hawaii J Am Diet Assoc 96 802 804 8683016 1:STN:280:DyaK28zhsVelsQ%3D%3D 10.1016/S0002-8223(96)00223-4
64. SS Leung JT Lau YY Xu LY Tse KF Huen GW Wong WY Law VT Yeung WK Yeung NK Leung 1996 Secular changes in standing height, sitting height and sexual maturation of Chinese-the Hong Kong Growth Study, 1993 Ann Hum Biol 23 297 306 8830917 1:STN:280:DyaK28vislKjsw%3D%3D 10.1080/03014469600004532
65. AM Parfitt 1994 The two faces of growth: benefits and risks to bone integrity Osteoporos Int 4 382 398 7696836 1:STN:280:DyaK2M3htVyktQ%3D%3D 10.1007/BF01622201
66. K Zhu H Greenfield Q Zhang X Du G Ma LH Foo CT Cowell DR Fraser 2008 Growth and bone mineral accretion during puberty in Chinese girls: a five-year longitudinal study J Bone Miner Res 23 167 172 17907923 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD1cXhvVOhsbc%3D 10.1359/jbmr.071006
67. V Abbassi 1998 Growth and normal puberty Pediatrics 102 507 511 9685454 1:STN:280:DyaK1czls1WjsA%3D%3D
68. Liu XS, Walker MD, McMahon DJ, Udesky J, Liu G, Bilezikian JP, Guo XE (2011) Better skeletal microstructure confers greater mechanical advantages in Chinese-American women versus Caucasian women. J Bone Miner Res
69. Young W (1989) Elastic stability formulas for stress and strain. In: Crawford H, Thomas S (eds) Roark's formulas for stress and strain, 6th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York, p 688
70. BL Riggs HW Wahner LJ Melton 3rd LS Richelson HL Judd KP Offord 1986 Rates of bone loss in the appendicular and axial skeletons of women. Evidence of substantial vertebral bone loss before menopause J Clin Invest 77 1487 1491 3700651 1:STN:280:DyaL287ps1Ojtg%3D%3D 10.1172/JCI112462
71. BL Riggs LJ Melton III RA Robb JJ Camp EJ Atkinson JM Peterson PA Rouleau CH McCollough ML Bouxsein S Khosla 2004 Population-based study of age and sex differences in bone volumetric density, size, geometry, and structure at different skeletal sites J Bone Miner Res 19 1945 1954 15537436 10.1359/jbmr.040916
72. A Falahati-Nini BL Riggs EJ Atkinson WM O'Fallon R Eastell S Khosla 2000 Relative contributions of testosterone and estrogen in regulating bone resorption and formation in normal elderly men J Clin Invest 106 1553 1560 11120762 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXovFagur8%3D 10.1172/JCI10942
73. HK Genant CE Cann B Ettinger GS Gordan 1982 Quantitative computed tomography of vertebral spongiosa: a sensitive method for detecting early bone loss after oophorectomy Ann Intern Med 97 699 705 6291439 1:STN:280: DyaL3s%2Fks1KhsA%3D%3D
74. L Gennari D Merlotti G Martini, et al. 2003 Longitudinal association between sex hormone levels, bone loss, and bone turnover in elderly men J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 5327 5333 14602769 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXptVynsbo%3D 10.1210/jc.2003-030736
75. BL Riggs LJ Melton RA Robb JJ Camp EJ Atkinson L McDaniel S Amin PA Rouleau S Khosla 2008 A population-based assessment of rates of bone loss at multiple skeletal sites: evidence for substantial trabecular bone loss in young adult women and men J Bone Miner Res 23 205 214 17937534 10.1359/jbmr.071020
76. RM Zebaze A Ghasem-Zadeh A Bohte S Iuliano-Burns M Mirams RI Price EJ Mackie E Seeman 2010 Intracortical remodelling and porosity in the distal radius and post-mortem femurs of women: a cross-sectional study Lancet 375 1729 1736 20472174 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60320-0
77. EM Lau H Lynn J Woo LJ Melton 3rd 2003 Areal and volumetric bone density in Hong Kong Chinese: a comparison with Caucasians living in the United States Osteoporos Int 14 583 588 12827221 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3svhsF2msA%3D%3D 10.1007/s00198-003-1402-7
78. PD Ross Y He AJ Yates C Coupland P Ravn M McClung D Thompson RD Wasnich 1996 Body size accounts for most differences in bone density between Asian and Caucasian women. The EPIC (Early Postmenopausal Interventional Cohort) Study Group Calcif Tissue Int 59 339 343 8849399 1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xms1KgsLo%3D 10.1007/s002239900137
79. J Woo M Li E Lau 2001 Population bone mineral density measurements for Chinese women and men in Hong Kong Osteoporos Int 12 289 295 11420778 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MzmtVCrtQ%3D%3D 10.1007/s001980170118
80. Y Duan XF Wang A Evans E Seeman 2005 Structural and biomechanical basis of racial and sex differences in vertebral fragility in Chinese and Caucasians Bone 36 987 998 15869923 10.1016/j.bone.2004.11.016
81. HS Nam MH Shin JM Zmuda PC Leung E Barrett-Connor ES Orwoll JA Cauley 2010 Race/ethnic differences in bone mineral densities in older men Osteoporos Int 21 2115 2123 20204598 10.1007/s00198-010-1188-3
82. JS Finkelstein ML Lee M Sowers B Ettinger RM Neer JL Kelsey JA Cauley MH Huang GA Greendale 2002 Ethnic variation in bone density in premenopausal and early perimenopausal women: effects of anthropometric and lifestyle factors J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 3057 3067 12107201 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XlsVGjtrw%3D 10.1210/jc.87.7.3057
83. EY Liao XP Wu XG Deng G Huang XP Zhu ZF Long WB Wang WL Tang H Zhang 2002 Age-related bone mineral density, accumulated bone loss rate and prevalence of osteoporosis at multiple skeletal sites in chinese women Osteoporos Int 13 669 676 12181627 10.1007/s001980200091
84. JS Finkelstein SE Brockwell V Mehta, et al. 2008 Bone mineral density changes during the menopause transition in a multiethnic cohort of women J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93 861 868 18160467 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjsFynurk%3D 10.1210/jc.2007-1876
85. E Seeman PD Delmas 2006 Bone quality-the material and structural basis of bone strength and fragility N Engl J Med 354 2250 2261 16723616 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XkvVShsbw%3D 10.1056/NEJMra053077
86. KS Tsai WC Cheng CK Chen TV Sanchez CT Su PU Chieng RS Yang 1997 Effect of bone area on spine density in Chinese men and women in Taiwan Bone 21 547 551 9430246 1:STN:280:DyaK1c%2FptVWisw%3D%3D 10.1016/S8756-3282(97)00203-2
87. YL Hou XP Wu XH Luo H Zhang XZ Cao YB Jiang EY Liao 2007 Differences in age-related bone mass of proximal femur between Chinese women and different ethnic women in the United States J Bone Miner Metab 25 243 252 17593495 10.1007/s00774-007-0756-x
88. LM Marshall JM Zmuda BK Chan E Barrett-Connor JA Cauley KE Ensrud TF Lang ES Orwoll 2008 Race and ethnic variation in proximal femur structure and BMD among older men J Bone Miner Res 23 121 130 17892375 10.1359/jbmr.070908
89. Walker MD, Liu XS, Stein E, et al. (2011) Differences in bone microarchitecture between postmenopausal Chinese-American and white women. J Bone Miner Res
90. T Nakamura CH Turner T Yoshikawa CW Slemenda M Peacock DB Burr Y Mizuno H Orimo Y Ouchi CC Johnston Jr 1994 Do variations in hip geometry explain differences in hip fracture risk between Japanese and white Americans? J Bone Miner Res 9 1071 1076 7942154 1:STN:280:DyaK2M%2FivVKhtg%3D%3D 10.1002/jbmr.5650090715
91. L Yan NJ Crabtree J Reeve B Zhou J Dequeker J Nijs JA Falch A Prentice 2004 Does hip strength analysis explain the lower incidence of hip fracture in the People's Republic of China? Bone 34 584 588 15003807 1:STN:280: DC%2BD2c7htlCmuw%3D%3D 10.1016/j.bone.2003.12.005
92. CH Turner 1991 Toward a cure for osteoporosis: reversal of excessive bone fragility Osteoporos Int 2 12 19 1790415 1:STN:280:DyaK387mtlKlug%3D%3D 10.1007/BF01627073
93. TJ Beck AC Looker CB Ruff H Sievanen HW Wahner 2000 Structural trends in the aging femoral neck and proximal shaft: analysis of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry data J Bone Miner Res 15 2297 2304 11127194 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M%2FpsF2mtA%3D%3D 10.1359/jbmr.2000.15.12.2297
94. N Yu YJ Liu Y Pei, et al. 2010 Evaluation of compressive strength index of the femoral neck in Caucasians and chinese Calcif Tissue Int 87 324 332 20814670 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXht1Snt7fN 10.1007/s00223-010-9406-8
95. Y Duan E Seeman 2002 Bone fragility in Asian and Caucasian men Ann Acad Med Singapore 31 54 66 11885497 1:STN:280:DC%2BD387ltlOruw%3D%3D
96. Y Sheu JA Cauley VW Wheeler AL Patrick CH Bunker KE Ensrud ES Orwoll JM Zmuda 2011 Age-related decline in bone density among ethnically diverse older men Osteoporos Int 22 599 605 20567806 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3M7ltFSitg%3D%3D 10.1007/s00198-010-1330-2
97. M Ito T Nakamura K Tsurusaki M Uetani K Hayashi 1999 Effects of menopause on age-dependent bone loss in the axial and appendicular skeletons in healthy Japanese women Osteoporos Int 10 377 383 10591835 1:STN:280: DC%2BD3c7ht1Kquw%3D%3D 10.1007/s001980050243
98. L Qin SK Au PC Leung MC Lau J Woo WY Choy WY Hung MA Dambacher KS Leung 2002 Baseline BMD and bone loss at distal radius measured by peripheral quantitative computed tomography in peri- and postmenopausal Hong Kong Chinese women Osteoporos Int 13 962 970 12459939 1:STN:280:DC%2BD38npvVCisA%3D%3D 10.1007/s001980200134
99. H Hagino K Yamamoto R Teshima H Kishimoto T Kagawa 1992 Radial bone mineral changes in pre- and postmenopausal healthy Japanese women: cross-sectional and longitudinal studies J Bone Miner Res 7 147 152 1570759 1:STN:280:DyaK383jvVelsw%3D%3D 10.1002/jbmr.5650070205
100. K Tsurusaki M Ito K Hayashi 2000 Differential effects of menopause and metabolic disease on trabecular and cortical bone assessed by peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) Br J Radiol 73 14 22 10721315 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3c7os1SqsQ%3D%3D
101. P Ruegsegger MA Dambacher E Ruegsegger JA Fischer M Anliker 1984 Bone loss in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. A cross-sectional and longitudinal study using quantitative computed tomography J Bone Joint Surg Am 66 1015 1023 6332808 1:STN:280:DyaL2M%2FgslSjtA%3D%3D
102. KS Tsai WC Cheng TV Sanchez CK Chen PU Chieng RS Yang 1997 Bone densitometry of proximal femur in Chinese subjects: gender differences in bone mass and bone areas Bone 20 365 369 9108357 1:STN:280:DyaK2s3mtF2nsQ%3D%3D 10.1016/S8756-3282(97)00094-X
103. T Horikoshi N Endo T Uchiyama T Tanizawa HE Takahashi 1999 Peripheral quantitative computed tomography of the femoral neck in 60 Japanese women Calcif Tissue Int 65 447 453 10594163 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXotFags7c%3D 10.1007/s002239900731
104. F Zhang LJ Tan SF Lei HW Deng 2010 The differences of femoral neck geometric parameters: effects of age, gender and race Osteoporos Int 21 1205 1214 19802512 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXktF2jsrc%3D 10.1007/s00198-009-1057-0
105. XF Wang Y Duan TJ Beck E Seeman 2005 Varying contributions of growth and ageing to racial and sex differences in femoral neck structure and strength in old age Bone 36 978 986 15869919 10.1016/j.bone.2004.11.015
106. TJ Beck CB Ruff WW Scott Jr CC Plato JD Tobin CA Quan 1992 Sex differences in geometry of the femoral neck with aging: a structural analysis of bone mineral data Calcif Tissue Int 50 24 29 1739866 1:STN:280: DyaK387lsVCqtg%3D%3D 10.1007/BF00297293
107. B Chai X Tang H Li 1996 Osteoclastic resorption of Haversian systems in cortical bone of femoral neck in aged women. A scanning electron microscopic study Chin Med J (Engl) 109 705 710 1:STN:280:DyaK2svitV2isg%3D%3D
108. KG Faulkner SR Cummings D Black L Palermo CC Gluer HK Genant 1993 Simple measurement of femoral geometry predicts hip fracture: the study of osteoporotic fractures J Bone Miner Res 8 1211 1217 8256658 1:STN:280:DyaK2c%2FnvVyhsw%3D%3D 10.1002/jbmr.5650081008
109. M Peacock CH Turner G Liu AK Manatunga L Timmerman CC Johnston Jr 1995 Better discrimination of hip fracture using bone density, geometry and architecture Osteoporos Int 5 167 173 7655177 1:STN:280:DyaK2Mzotlynug%3D%3D 10.1007/BF02106096
110. JR Center TV Nguyen NA Pocock KA Noakes PJ Kelly JA Eisman PN Sambrook 1998 Femoral neck axis length, height loss and risk of hip fracture in males and females Osteoporos Int 8 75 81 9692081 1:STN:280:DyaK1czlslWisg%3D%3D 10.1007/s001980050051
111. SR Cummings JA Cauley L Palermo PD Ross RD Wasnich D Black KG Faulkner 1994 Racial differences in hip axis lengths might explain racial differences in rates of hip fracture. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group Osteoporos Int 4 226 229 7949753 1:STN:280:DyaK2M%2FjslSlug%3D%3D 10.1007/BF01623243
112. TM Theobald JA Cauley CC Gluer CH Bunker FA Ukoli HK Genant 1998 Black-white differences in hip geometry. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group Osteoporos Int 8 61 67 9692079 1:STN:280:DyaK1czlslWjug%3D%3D 10.1007/s001980050049
113. GI Im MJ Lim 2011 Proximal hip geometry and hip fracture risk assessment in a Korean population Osteoporos Int 22 803 807 20552332 1:STN:280: DC%2BC3M7nt1OmsQ%3D%3D 10.1007/s00198-010-1301-7
114. MC Wang M Aguirre GS Bhudhikanok CG Kendall S Kirsch R Marcus LK Bachrach 1997 Bone mass and hip axis length in healthy Asian, black, Hispanic, and white American youths J Bone Miner Res 12 1922 1935 9383697 1:STN:280: DyaK1c%2FksV2mtg%3D%3D 10.1359/jbmr.1997.12.11.1922
115. Wang XF, Duan Y, Seeman E (2004) Similar trunk length but shorter leg length in Chinese than Caucasians. J Bone Miner Res 19(suppl 1):S168(abstract)
116. K Aoyagi PD Ross JW Davis RD Wasnich T Hayashi T Takemoto 1998 Falls among community-dwelling elderly in Japan J Bone Miner Res 13 1468 1474 9738520 1:STN:280:DyaK1cvgvV2jsg%3D%3D 10.1359/jbmr.1998.13.9.1468
117. Nelson D, Pettifor JM, Norris S (2008) Race, ethnicity, and osteoporosis. In: Marcus R, Feldman D, Nelson D, Rosen CJ (eds) osteoporosis, 3rd edn. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego, pp 667-687
118. Duan Y (2005) Pathogenesis of osteoporosis in Asian and Caucasian Women. In: Deng H, Liu Y (eds) Current topics in osteoporosis. World Scientific, Singapore, pp 26-66