Vitamin D deficiency: A new risk factor for type 2 diabetes?

Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism

Volumn 61, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 337-348

  Mezza, T ^a   Muscogiuri, G ^a   Sorice, G P ^a   Prioletta, A ^a   Salomone, E ^a   Pontecorvi, A ^a   Giaccari, A ^a  

^a FONDAZIONE POLICLINICO UNIVERSITARIO A GEMELLI IRCCS   (Italy)

Author keywords

Insulin resistance; Obesity; Vitamin D deficiency

Indexed keywords

25 HYDROXYVITAMIN D; ADIPONECTIN; CALCIUM; COLECALCIFEROL; INSULIN; PARATHYROID HORMONE; PLACEBO; VITAMIN D;

ADIPOGENESIS; CALCIUM INTAKE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG EFFECT; GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; HUMAN; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); VITAMIN BLOOD LEVEL; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; INSULIN; INSULIN RESISTANCE; OBESITY; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; RISK FACTORS; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; VITAMINS;

EID: 84870702846     PISSN: 02506807     EISSN: 14219697     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000342771     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Curtin LR: Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008. JAMA 2010; 303: 235-241
2. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Dietz WH, Vinicor F, Bales VS, Marks JS: Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA 2003; 289: 76-79. (Pubitemid 36026281)
3. Binkley N, Ramamurthy R, Krueger D: Low vitamin D status: definition, prevalence, consequences, and correction (review). Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010; 39: 287-301, table of contents.
4. Giaccari A, Sorice G, Muscogiuri G: Glucose toxicity: the leading actor in the pathogenesis and clinical history of type 2 diabetes-mechanisms and potentials for treatment (review). Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2009; 19: 365-377.
5. Holick MF: Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 266-281.
6. Martini LA, Wood RJ: Vitamin D status and the metabolic syndrome. Nutr Rev 2006; 64: 479-486. (Pubitemid 44808263)
7. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III): Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 2002; 106: 3143-3421.
8. Hyppönen E, Power C: Vitamin D status and glucose homeostasis in the 1958 British birth cohort: the role of obesity. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 2244-2246. (Pubitemid 44899859)
9. Pittas AG, Dawson-Hughes B: Vitamin D and diabetes (review). J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2010; 121: 425-429.
10. Brown AJ: Regulation of vitamin D action. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1999; 14: 11.
11. Christakos S, Ajibade DV, Dhawan P, Fechner AJ, Mady LJ: Vitamin D: metabolism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010; 39: 243.
12. Hollis BW: Assessment of vitamin D status and definition of a normal circulating range of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (review). Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2008; 15: 489-494.
13. Armas LA, Huerter C, Heaney RP: Reply: a responsible approach to maintaining adequate serum vitamin D levels. J Am Acad Dermatol 2008; 58: 516. (Pubitemid 351226309)
14. Pittas AG, Lau J, Hu FB, Dawson-Hughes B: The role of vitamin D and calcium in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis (review). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 2017-2029. (Pubitemid 46997093)
15. Ashwell M, Stone EM, Stolte H, Cashman KD, Macdonald H, Lanham-New S, Hiom S, Webb A, Fraser D: UK Food Standards Agency Workshop Report: an investigation of the relative contributions of diet and sunlight to vitamin D status. Br J Nutr 2010; 104: 603-611.
16. Bolland MJ, Grey AB, Ames RW, Mason BH, Horne AM, Gamble GD, Reid IR: Determinants of vitamin D status in older men living in a subtropical climate. Osteoporos Int 2006; 17: 1742-1748. (Pubitemid 44607394)
17. Need AG, Morris HA, Horowitz M, Nordin C: Effects of skin thickness, age, body fat, and sunlight on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 58: 882-885. (Pubitemid 23353596)
18. Heaney RP: Barriers to optimizing vitamin D 3 intake for the elderly. J Nutr 2006; 136: 1123-1125.
19. Looker AC: Do body fat and exercise modulate vitamin D status? Nutr Rev 2007; 65:S124-S126.
20. Bodnar LM, Simhan HN, Powers RW, Frank MP, Cooperstein E, Roberts JM: High prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in black and white pregnant women residing in the northern United States and their neonates. J Nutr 2007; 137: 447-452. (Pubitemid 46213463)
21. Kimlin MG: Geographic location and vitamin D synthesis. Mol Aspects Med 2008; 29: 453-461.
22. Shoben AB, Kestenbaum B, Levin G, Hoofnagle AN, Psaty BM, Siscovick DS, de Boer IH: Seasonal variation in 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in the cardiovascular health study. Am J Epidemiol 2011; 174: 1363-1372.
23. El Baba K, Zantout MS, Akel R, Azar ST: Seasonal variation of vitamin D and HbA(1c) levels in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus in the Middle East. Int J Gen Med 2011; 4: 635-638.
24. Macdonald HM, Mavroeidi A, Fraser WD, Darling AL, Black AJ, Aucott L, O'Neill F, Hart K, Berry JL, Lanham-New SA, Reid DM: Sunlight and dietary contributions to the seasonal vitamin D status of cohorts of healthy postmenopausal women living at northerly latitudes: a major cause for concern? Osteoporos Int 2011; 22: 2461-2472.
25. Bolland MJ, Grey AB, Ames RW, Mason BH, Horne AM, Gamble GD, Reid IR: The effects of seasonal variation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and fat mass on a diagnosis of vitamin D sufficiency. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 86: 959-964. (Pubitemid 47538296)
26. Nimitphong H, Chanprasertyothin S, Jongjaroenprasert W, Ongphiphadhanakul B: The association between vitamin D status and circulating adiponectin independent of adiposity in subjects with abnormal glucose tolerance. Endocrine 2009; 36: 205-210.
27. Heaney RP, Davies KM, Chen TC, Holick MF, Barger-Lux MJ: Human serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol response to extended oral dosing with cholecalciferol. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 77: 204-210. (Pubitemid 36015393)
28. Holick MF, Chen TC, Lu Z, Sauter E: Vitamin D and skin physiology: a D-lightful story. J Bone Miner Res 2007; 22(suppl 2):V28-V33. (Pubitemid 351304645)
29. Nordfeldt S, Ludvigsson J: Seasonal variation of HbA1c in intensive treatment of children with type 1 diabetes. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2000; 13: 529-535. (Pubitemid 30253145)
30. Braatvedt GD, Mildenhall L, Patten C, Harris G: Insulin requirements and metabolic control in children with diabetes mellitus attending a summer camp. Diabet Med 1997; 14: 258-261. (Pubitemid 27151840)
31. Gikas A, Sotiropoulos A, Pastromas V, Papazafiropoulou A, Apostolou O, Pappas S: Seasonal variation in fasting glucose and HbA1c in patients with type 2 diabetes. Prim Care Diabetes 2009; 3: 111-114.
32. Tseng CL, Brimacombe M, Xie M, Rajan M, Wang H, Kolassa J, Crystal S, Chen TC, Pogach L, Safford M: Seasonal patterns in monthly hemoglobin A1c values. Am J Epidemiol 2005; 161: 565-574. (Pubitemid 40349912)
33. Karvonen M, Jantti V, Muntoni S Stabilini M, Stabilini L, Muntoni S, Tuomilehto J: Comparison of the seasonal pattern in the clinical onset of IDDM in Finland and Sardinia. Diabetes Care 2008; 21: 1101-1109.
34. Robinson JG, Manson JE, Larson J, Liu S, Song Y, Howard BV, Phillips L, Shikany JM, Allison M, Curb JD, Johnson KC, Watts N: Lack of association between 25(OH)D levels and incident type 2 diabetes in older women. Diabetes Care 2011; 34: 628-634.
35. Pittas AG, Sun Q, Manson JE, Dawson-Hughes B, Hu FB: Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and risk of incident type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 2021-2023.
36. Dalgard C, Petersen MS, Weihe P, Grandjean P: Vitamin D status in relation to glucose metabolism and type 2 diabetes in septuagenarians. Diabetes Care 2011; 34: 1284-1288.
37. Gagnon C, Lu ZX, Magliano DJ, Dunstan DW, Shaw JE, Zimmet PZ, Sikaris K, Grantham N, Ebeling PR, Daly RM: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, calcium intake, and risk of type 2 diabetes after 5 years: results from a national, population-based prospective study (the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle study). Diabetes Care 2011; 34: 1133-1138.
38. Grimnes G, Emaus N, Joakimsen RM, Figenschau Y, Jenssen T, Njølstad I, Schirmer H, Jorde R: Baseline serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in the Tromsø Study 1994-1995 and risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus during 11 years of follow-up. Diabet Med 2010; 27: 1107-1115.
39. Mitri J, Muraru MD, Pittas AG: Vitamin D and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review (review). Eur J Clin Nutr 2011; 65: 1005-1015.
40. Knekt P, Laaksonen M, Mattila C, Härkänen T, Marniemi J, Heliövaara M, Rissanen H, Montonen J, Reunanen A: Serum vitamin D and subsequent occurrence of type 2 diabetes. Epidemiology 2008; 19: 666-671.
41. Liu E, Meigs JB, Pittas AG, Economos CD, McKeown NM, Booth SL, Jacques PF: Predicted 25-hydroxyvitamin D score and incident type 2 diabetes in the Framingham Offspring Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 91: 1627-1633.
42. Forouhi NG, Luan J, Cooper A, Boucher BJ, Wareham NJ: Baseline serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D is predictive of future glycemic status and insulin resistance: the Medical Research Council Ely Prospective Study 1990-2000. Diabetes 2008; 57: 2619-2625.
43. Liu E, McKeown NM, Pittas AG, Meigs JB, Economos CD, Booth SL, Jacques PF: Predicted 25-hydroxyvitamin D score and change in fasting plasma glucose in the Framingham offspring study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2012; 66: 139-141.
44. Kayaniyil S, Retnakaran R, Harris SB, Vieth R, Knight JA, Gerstein HC, Perkins BA, Zinman B, Hanley AJ: Prospective associations of vitamin D with-cell function and glycemia: the PROspective Metabolism and ISlet cell Evaluation (PROMISE) cohort study. Diabetes 2011; 60: 2947-2953.
45. Gagnon C, Lu ZX, Magliano DJ, Dunstan DW, Shaw JE, Zimmet PZ, Sikaris K, Ebeling PR, Daly RM: Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D is associated with increased risk of the development of the metabolic syndrome at five years: results from a national, population-based prospective study (the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study: Aus-Diab). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 1953-1961.
46. Pilz S, van den Hurk K, Nijpels G, Stehouwer CD, Van't Riet E, Kienreich K, Tomaschitz A, Dekker JM: Vitamin D status, incident diabetes and prospective changes in glucose metabolism in older subjects: the Hoorn study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2012; 22: 833-839.
47. Forouhi NG, Ye Z, Rickard AP, Khaw KT, Luben R, Langenberg C, Wareham NJ: Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and the risk of type 2 diabetes: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC)-Norfolk cohort and updated meta-analysis of prospective studies. Diabetologia 2012; 55: 2173-2182.
48. George PS, Pearson ER, Witham MD: Effect of vitamin D supplementation on glycaemic control and insulin resistance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabet Med 2012;29:e142-e150.
49. Zhang J, Li W, Liu J, Wu W, Ouyang H, Zhang Q, Wang Y, Liu L, Yang R, Liu X, Meng Q, Lu J: Polymorphisms in the vitamin D receptor gene and type 1 diabetes mellitus risk: an update by meta-analysis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 355: 135-142.
50. Bikle D: Nonclassic actions of vitamin D (review). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 26-34.
51. Wang TJ, Pencina MJ, Booth SL, Jacques PF, Ingelsson E, Lanier K, Benjamin EJ, D'Agostino RB, Wolf M, Vasan RS: Vitamin D deficiency and risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2008; 117: 503-511.
52. Lappe JM, Travers-Gustafson D, Davies KM, Recker RR, Heaney RP: Vitamin D and calcium supplementation reduces cancer risk: results of a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 85: 1586-1591. (Pubitemid 46890428)
53. Cavalier E, Delanaye P, Souberbielle JC, Radermecker RP: Vitamin D and type 2 diabetes mellitus: where do we stand (review)? Diabetes Metab 2011; 37: 265-272.
54. Muscogiuri G, Sorice GP, Ajjan R, Mezza T, Pilz S, Prioletta A, Scragg R, Volpe SL, Witham MD, Giaccari A: Can vitamin D deficiency cause diabetes and cardiovascular diseases? Present evidence and future perspectives (review). Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2012; 22: 81-87.
55. Oosterwerff MM, Eekhoff EM, Heymans MW, Lips P, van Schoor NM: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the metabolic syndrome in older persons: a populationbased study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2011; 75: 608-613.
56. Scragg R, Sowers M, Bell C: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, diabetes, and ethnicity in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 2813-2818. (Pubitemid 39565042)
57. Husemoen LL, Thuesen BH, Fenger M, Jørgensen T, Glümer C, Svensson J, Ovesen L, Witte DR, Linneberg A: Serum 25(OH)D and type 2 diabetes association in a general population: a prospective study. Diabetes Care 2012; 35: 1695-1700.
58. Lu L, Yu Z, Pan A, Hu FB, Franco OH, Li H, Li X, Yang X, Chen Y, Lin X: Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and metabolic syndrome among middle-aged and elderly Chinese individuals. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 1278-1283.
59. Blum M, Dolnikowski G, Seyoum E, Harris SS, Booth SL, Peterson J, Saltzman E, Dawson-Hughes B: Vitamin D 3 in fat tissue. Endocrine 2008; 33: 90-94.
60. Wortsman J, Matsuoka LY, Chen TC, Lu Z, Holick MF: Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72: 690-693. (Pubitemid 30667088)
61. Compston JE, Vedi S, Ledger JE, Webb A, Gazet JC, Pilkington TR: Vitamin D status and bone histomorphometry in gross obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 1981; 34: 2359-2363. (Pubitemid 12176062)
62. Manco M, Calvani M, Nanni G, Greco AV, Iaconelli A, Gasbarrini G, Castagneto M, Mingrone G: Low 25-hydroxyvitamin D does not affect insulin sensitivity in obesity after bariatric surgery. Obes Res 2005; 13: 1692-1700.
63. Muscogiuri G, Sorice GP, Prioletta A, Policola C, Della Casa S, Pontecorvi A, Giaccari A: 25-Hydroxyvitamin D concentration correlates with insulin-sensitivity and BMI in obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2010; 18: 1906-1910.
64. Muscogiuri G, Policola C, Prioletta A, Sorice G, Mezza T, Lassandro A, Della Casa S, Pontecorvi A, Giaccari A: Low levels of 25(OH) D and insulin-resistance: 2 unrelated features or a cause-effect in PCOS? Clin Nutr 2012; 31: 476-480.
65. Zhou QG, Hou FF, Guo ZJ, Liang M, Wang GB, Zhang X: 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D improved the free fatty-acid-induced insulin resistance in cultured C2C12 cells. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2008; 24: 459-464.
66. Maestro B, Campión J, Dávila N, Calle C: Stimulation by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 of insulin receptor expression and insulin responsiveness for glucose transport in U-937 human promonocytic cells. Endocr J 2000; 47: 383-391.
67. Draznin B, Sussman KE, Eckel RH, Kao M, Yost T, Sherman NA: Possible role of cytosolic free calcium concentrations in mediating insulin resistance of obesity and hyperinsulinemia. J Clin Invest 1988; 82: 1848-1852. (Pubitemid 19054929)
68. Draznin B, Lewis D, Houlder N, Sherman N, Adamo M, Garvey WT, LeRoith D, Sussman K: Mechanism of insulin resistance induced by sustained levels of cytosolic free calcium in rat adipocytes. Endocrinology 1989; 125: 2341-2349. (Pubitemid 19279417)
69. Zemel MB: Nutritional and endocrine modulation of intracellular calcium: implications in obesity, insulin resistance and hypertension. Mol Cell Biochem 1998; 188: 129-136. (Pubitemid 28493325)
70. Williams PF, Caterson ID, Cooney GJ, Zilkens RR, Turtle JR: High affinity insulin binding and insulin receptor-effector coupling: modulation by Ca 2+ . Cell Calcium 1990; 11: 547-556. (Pubitemid 20336058)
71. Reusch JE, Begum N, Sussman KE, Draznin B: Regulation of GLUT-4 phosphorylation by intracellular calcium in adipocytes. Endocrinology 1991; 129: 3269-3273.
72. Whitehead JP, Richards AA, Hickman IJ, Macdonald GA, Prins JB: Adiponectin-a key adipokine in the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Obes Metab 2006; 8: 264-280.
73. Nimitphong H, Chanprasertyothin S, Jongjaroenprasert W, Ongphiphadhanakul B: The association between vitamin D status and circulating adiponectin independent of adiposity in subjects with abnormal glucose tolerance. Endocrine 2009; 36: 205-210.
74. Lee NK, Sowa H, Hinoi E, Ferron M, Ahn JD, Confavreux C, Dacquin R, Mee PJ, McKee MD, Jung DY, Zhang Z, Kim JK, Mauvais-Jarvis F, Ducy P, Karsenty G: Endocrine regulation of energy metabolism by the skeleton. Cell 2007; 130: 456-469. (Pubitemid 47208519)
75. Carvallo L, Henriquez B, Olate J, van Wijnen AJ, Lian JB, Stein GS, Onate S, Stein JL, Montecino M: The 1alpha,25-dihydroxy vitamin D 3 receptor preferentially recruits the coactivator SRC-1 during up-regulation of the osteocalcin gene. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 103: 420-424. (Pubitemid 46401292)
76. Wood RJ: Vitamin D and adipogenesis: new molecular insights. Nutr Rev 2008; 66: 40-46. (Pubitemid 351666660)
77. Hjelmesaeth J, Hofsø D, Aasheim E, Jenssen T, Moan J, Hager H, Røislien J, Bollerslev J: Parathyroid hormone, but not vitamin D, is associated with the metabolic syndrome in morbidly obese women and men: a cross-sectional study. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2009; 8: 7.
78. Lee S, Clark SA, Gill RK, Christakos S: 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D 3 and pancreatic beta-cell function: vitamin D receptors, gene expression, and insulin secretion. Endocrinology 1994; 134: 1602-1610.
79. Khaleeli AA, Johnson JN, Taylor WH: Prevalence of glucose intolerance in primary hyperparathyroidism and the benefit of parathyroidectomy. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2007; 23: 43-48. (Pubitemid 46152485)
80. Chiu KC, Chuang LM, Lee NP, Ryu JM, Mc-Gullam JL, Tsai GP, Saad MF: Insulin sensitivity is inversely correlated with plasma intact parathyroid hormone level. Metabolism 2000; 49: 1501-1505.
81. Reis JP, von Mühlen D, Kritz-Silverstein D, Wingard DL, Barrett-Connor E: Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone levels, and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in communitydwelling older adults. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 1549-1555. (Pubitemid 46871169)
82. Soares MJ, Ping-Delfos WC, Sherriff JL, Nezhad DH, Cummings NK, Zhao Y: Vitamin D and parathyroid hormone in insulin resistance of abdominal obesity: cause or effect? Eur J Clin Nutr 2011; 65: 1348-1352.
83. Ahlström T, Hagström E, Larsson A, Rudberg C, Lind L, Hellman P: Correlation between plasma calcium, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and the metabolic syndrome (MetS) in a community-based cohort of men and women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009; 71: 673-678.
84. Baldi S, Natali A, Buzzigoli G, Galvan AQ, Sironi AM, Ferrannini E: In vivo effect of insulin on intracellular calcium concentrations: relation to insulin resistance. Metabolism 1996; 45: 1402-1407. (Pubitemid 26383083)
85. McCarty MF, Thomas CA: PTH excess may promote weight gain by impeding catecholamine-induced lipolysis-implications for the impact of calcium, vitamin D, and alcohol on body weight. Med Hypotheses 2003; 61: 535-542. (Pubitemid 37411898)
86. Norman AW, Frankel JB, Heldt AM, Grodsky GM: Vitamin D deficiency inhibits pancreatic secretion of insulin. Science 1980; 209: 823-825. (Pubitemid 10017495)
87. Kadowaki S, Norman AW: Pancreatic vitamin D-dependent calcium binding protein: biochemical properties and response to vitamin D. Arch Biochem Biophys 1984; 233: 228-236. (Pubitemid 14071019)
88. Bourlon PM, Billaudel B, Faure-Dussert A: Influence of vitamin D 3 deficiency and 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D 3 on de novo insulin biosynthesis in the islets of the rat endocrine pancreas. J Endocrinol 1999; 160: 87-95. (Pubitemid 29044571)
89. Giulietti A, Gysemans C, Stoffels K, van Etten E, Decallonne B, Overbergh L, Bouillon R, Mathieu C: Vitamin D deficiency in early life accelerates type 1 diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice. Diabetologia 2004; 47: 451-462. (Pubitemid 38491241)
90. Zella JB, McCary LC, Deluca HF: Oral administration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 completely protects NOD mice from insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Arch Biochem Biophys 2003; 417: 77-80. (Pubitemid 36960051)
91. Cade C, Norman AW: Vitamin D 3 improves impaired glucose tolerance and insulin secretion in the vitamin D-deficient rat in vivo. Endocrinology 1986; 119: 84-90. (Pubitemid 16100711)
92. Bourlon PM, Faure-Dussert A, Billaudel B: The de novo synthesis of numerous proteins is decreased during vitamin D 3 deficiency and is gradually restored by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 repletion in the islets of Langerhans of rats. J Endocrinol 1999; 162: 101-109. (Pubitemid 29336360)
93. Clark SA, Stumpf WE, Sar M: Effect of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D 3 on insulin secretion. Diabetes 1981; 30: 382-386. (Pubitemid 11022825)
94. Maestro B, Dávila N, Carranza MC, Calle C: Identification of a vitamin D response element in the human insulin receptor gene promoter. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2003; 84: 223-230. (Pubitemid 36514839)
95. Maestro B, Molero S, Bajo S, Dávila N, Calle C: Transcriptional activation of the human insulin receptor gene by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). Cell Biochem Funct 2002; 20: 227-232.
96. Beaulieu C, Kestekian R, Havrankova J, Gascon-Barré M: Calcium is essential in normalizing intolerance to glucose that accompanies vitamin D depletion in vivo. Diabetes 1993; 42: 35-43. (Pubitemid 23013793)
97. Kimlin MG, Olds WJ, Moore MR: Location and vitamin D synthesis: is the hypothesis validated by geophysical data? J Photochem Photobiol B 2007; 86: 234-239. (Pubitemid 46170221)
98. Mohr SB, Garland CF, Gorham ED, Garland FC: The association between ultraviolet B irradiance, vitamin D status and incidence rates of type 1 diabetes in 51 regions worldwide. Diabetologia 2008; 51: 1391-1398.
99. The EURODIAB Substudy 2 Study Group: Vitamin D supplement in early childhood and risk for type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 1999; 42: 51-54.
100. Stene LC, Joner G, Norwegian Childhood Diabetes Study Group: Use of cod liver oil during the first year of life is associated with lower risk of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes: a large, population-based, casecontrol study. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 78: 1128-1134. (Pubitemid 39663453)
101. Hypponen E, Laara E, Reunanen A, Järvelin MR, Virtanen SM: Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth cohort study. Lancet 2001; 358: 1500-1503. (Pubitemid 33055701)
102. Fronczak CM, Baron AE, Chase HP Ross C, Ross C, Brady HL, Hoffman M, Eisenbarth GS, Rewers M, Norris JM: In utero dietary exposures and risk of islet autoimmunity in children. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: 3237-3242. (Pubitemid 37466881)
103. Stene LC, Ulriksen J, Magnus P, Joner G: Use of cod liver oil during pregnancy associated with lower risk of type I diabetes in the offspring. Diabetologia 2000; 43: 1093-1098.
104. Zipitis CS, Akobeng AK: Vitamin D supplementation in early childhood and risk of type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child 2008; 93: 512-517. (Pubitemid 352025770)
105. Pitocco D, Crinò A, Di Stasio E, Manfrini S, Guglielmi C, Spera S, Anguissola GB, Visalli N, Suraci C, Matteoli MC, Patera IP, Cavallo MG, Bizzarri C, Pozzilli P, IMDIAB Group: The effects of calcitriol and nicotinamide on residual pancreatic beta-cell function in patients with recentonset type 1 diabetes (IMDIAB XI). Diabet Med 2006; 23: 920-923. (Pubitemid 44141083)
106. Kumar S, Davies M, Zakaria Y, Mawer EB, Gordon C, Olukoga AO, Boulton AJ: Improvement in glucose tolerance and betacell function in a patient with vitamin D deficiency during treatment with vitamin D. Postgrad Med J 1994; 70: 440-443. (Pubitemid 24196871)
107. Nagpal J, Pande JN, Bhartia A: A doubleblind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the short-term effect of vitamin D 3 supplementation on insulin sensitivity in apparently healthy, middle-aged, centrally obese men. Diabet Med 2009; 26: 19-27.
108. von Hurst PR, Stonehouse W, Coad J: Vitamin D supplementation reduces insulin resistance in South Asian women living in New Zealand who are insulin resistant and vitamin D deficient-a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Br J Nutr 2010; 103: 549-555.
109. Vieth R, Bischoff-Ferrari H, Boucher BJ, Dawson-Hughes B, Garland CF, Heaney RP, Holick MF, Hollis BW, Lamberg-Allardt C, McGrath JJ, Norman AW, Scragg R, Whiting SJ, Willett WC, Zittermann A: The urgent need to recommend an intake of vitamin D that is effective. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 85: 649-650. (Pubitemid 46393494)
110. von Hurst PR, Stonehouse W, Coad J: Vitamin D status and attitudes towards sun exposure in South Asian women living in Auckland, New Zealand. Public Health Nutr 2010; 13: 531-536.
111. Akbarzadeh M, Dabbaghmanesh MH, Hasanzadeh J, Hasanzadeh J: Impact of treatment with oral calcitriol on glucose indices in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients. J Clin Nutr 2011; 20: 521-526.
112. Pittas AG, Dawson-Hughes B, Li T, Van Dam RM, Willett WC, Manson JE, Hu FB: Vitamin D and calcium intake in relation to type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 650-656. (Pubitemid 44115368)
113. Liu S, Song Y, Ford ES, Manson JE, Buring JE, Ridker PM: Dietary calcium, vitamin D, and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in middle-aged and older US women. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 2926-2932. (Pubitemid 43942926)
114. Pittas AG, Harris SS, Stark PC, Dawson-Hughes B: The effects of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on blood glucose and markers of inflammation in nondiabetic adults. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 980-986. (Pubitemid 46556596)
115. de Boer IH, Tinker LF, Connelly S, Curb JD, Howard BV, Kestenbaum B, Larson JC, Manson JE, Margolis KL, Siscovick DS, Weiss NS, Women's Health Initiative Investigators: Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of incident diabetes in the Women's Health Initiative. Diabetes Care 2008; 31: 701-707.
116. Grant AM, Avenell A, Campbell MK, Mc-Donald AM, MacLennan GS, McPherson GC, Anderson FH, Cooper C, Francis RM, Donaldson C, Gillespie WJ, Robinson CM, Torgerson DJ, Wallace WA, RECORD Trial Group: Oral vitamin D 3 and calcium for secondary prevention of low-trauma fractures in elderly people (Randomised Evaluation of Calcium Or vitamin D, RECORD): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 365: 1621-1628. (Pubitemid 40693411)
117. Tai K, Need AG, Horowitz M, Chapman IM: Glucose tolerance and vitamin D: effects of treating vitamin D deficiency. Nutrition 2008; 24: 950-956.
118. Jorde R, Figenschau Y: Supplementation with cholecalciferol does not improve glycaemic control in diabetic subjects with normal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels. Eur J Nutr 2009; 48: 349-354.
119. Gedik O, Akalin S: Effects of vitamin D deficiency and repletion on insulin and glucagon secretion in man. Diabetologia 1986; 29: 142-145. (Pubitemid 16137021)
120. Orwoll E, Riddle M, Prince M: Effects of vitamin D on insulin and glucagon secretion in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 59: 1083-1087.
121. Borissova AM, Tankova T, Kirilov G, Dakovska L, Kovacheva R: The effect of vitamin D 3 on insulin secretion and peripheral insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patients. Int J Clin Pract 2003; 57: 258-261. (Pubitemid 36700706)
122. Nazarian S, St Peter JV, Boston RC, Jones SA, Mariash CN: Vitamin D 3 supplementation improves insulin sensitivity in subjects with impaired fasting glucose. Transl Res 2011; 158: 276-281.
123. Mitri J, Dawson-Hughes B, Hu FB, Pittas AG: Effects of vitamin D and calcium supplementation on pancreatic-cell function, insulin sensitivity, and glycemia in adults at high risk of diabetes: the Calcium and Vitamin D for Diabetes Mellitus (CaDDM) randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 94: 486-494.
124. Harris SS, Pittas AG, Palermo NJ: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation to improve glycaemia in overweight and obese African Americans. Diabetes Obes Metab 2012; 14:789-794.