Occupational and Environmental Causes of Lung Cancer

Clinics in Chest Medicine

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 681-703

  Field, R William ^a   Withers, Brian L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

Author keywords

Cancer; Carcinogen; Environmental; Epidemiology; International Agency for Research on Cancer; Lung; Occupational

Indexed keywords

ALUMINUM; ARSENIC; ASBESTOS; ASBESTOS FIBER; BERYLLIUM; BIS(CHLOROMETHYL) ETHER; CADMIUM; CHLOROMETHYL METHYL ETHER; CHROMIUM; COAL TAR; COKE; FERRIC OXIDE; IRON; MUSTARD GAS; NICKEL; PLUTONIUM 239; RADON 222; RUBBER; SILICON DIOXIDE; STEEL;

ALPHA RADIATION; BIOFUEL PRODUCTION; CANCER EPIDEMIOLOGY; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER RISK; COAL GASIFICATION; DIESEL ENGINE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; GAMMA RADIATION; HUMAN; IONIZING RADIATION; LUNG CANCER; OCCUPATIONAL CANCER; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PAINTING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION EXPOSURE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RUBBER INDUSTRY; SOOT; X RAY ANALYSIS;

CARCINOGENS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HUMANS; LUNG NEOPLASMS; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84869227490     PISSN: 02725231     EISSN: 15578216     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccm.2012.07.001     Document Type: Review

References (168)

1. SEER cancer statistics review, 1975-2008 2011, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda (MD), Available at:. http://dccps.nci.nih.gov/ocs/prevalence/prevalence.html, N. Howlader, A.M. Noone, M. Krapcho (Eds.).
2. Siegel R., Naishadham D., Jemal A. Cancer statistics 2012. CA Cancer J Clin 2011, 62(1):10-29.
3. U.S. Center for Disease Control Annual smoking-attributable mortality, years of potential life lost, and productivity losses-United States, 1997-2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005, 54:625-628.
4. Thun M.J., Henley S.J., Burns D., et al. Lung cancer death rates in lifelong nonsmokers. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006, 98:691-699.
5. Sun S., Schiller J.H., Gazdar A.F. Lung cancer in never smokers-a different disease. Nat Rev Cancer 2007, 7:778-790.
6. Ferlay J., Shin H.-R., Bray F., et al. Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008. Int J Cancer 2010, 127(12):2893-2917.
7. Couraud S., Zalcman G., Milleron B., et al. Lung cancer in never smokers-a review. Eur J Cancer 2012, Available at:, Accessed June 1, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2012.03.007.
8. Wakelee H.A., Chang E.T., Gomez S.L., et al. Lung cancer incidence in never smokers. J Clin Oncol 2007, 25(5):472-478.
9. Blair A., Freeman L.B. Lung cancer among nonsmokers. Epidemiology 2006, 17(6):601-613.
10. Subramanian J., Govindan R. Lung cancer in never smokers: a review. J Clin Oncol 2007, 25(5):561-570.
11. Samet J.M., Avila-Tang E., Boffetta P., et al. Lung cancer in never smokers: clinical epidemiology and environmental risk factors. Clin Cancer Res 2009, 15(18):5626-5645.
12. Neuberger J., Field R.W. Occupation and lung cancer in nonsmokers. Rev Environ Health 2003, 18(4):251-267.
13. Spitz M.R., Wu X., Wilkinson A., et al. Cancer of the lung. Cancer epidemiology and prevention (third edition) 2006, 638-658. Oxford University Press, New York, NY. D. Schottenfeld, J. Fraumei (Eds.).
14. Dela Cruz C.S., Tanoue L.T., Matthay R.A. Lung cancer: epidemiology, etiology, and prevention. Clin Chest Med 2011, 32:605-644.
15. Doll R., Peto R. The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981, 66:1191-1308.
16. President's cancer panel. 2008-2009 annual report. Reducing environmental cancer risk: what we can do now 2010, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda (MD), Available at:, Accessed April 5, 2012. http://deainfo.nci.nih.gov/advisory/pcp/annualReports/pcp08-09rpt/PCP_Report_08-09_508.pdf.
17. Harvard Center for Cancer Prevention, Harvard School of Public Health. Harvard Report on Cancer Prevention. Vol. 1: human causes of cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996, 7(1):S3-S4. Available at:, Accessed June 1, 2012. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/cancer/resources_materials/reports.index.htm.
18. Doll R. Epidemiological evidence of the effects of behavior and the environment on the risk of human cancer. Recent Results Cancer Res 1998, 154:3-21.
19. Travis L.B., Gospodarowicz M., Curtis R.E., et al. Lung cancer following chemotherapy and radiotherapy for Hodgkin's disease. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002, 94:182-192.
20. Herbst R.S., Heymach J.V., Lippman S.M. Lung cancer. N Engl J Med 2008, 359(13):1367-1380.
21. El Ghissassi F., Baan R., Straif K., et al. A review of human carcinogens-part D: radiation. Lancet Oncol 2009, 10(8):751-752.
22. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement Ionizing radiation exposure of the population of the United States. Report No. 160, Figure 1-1 2009, NCRP, Bethesda (MD).
23. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: Radiation. vol. 100D; 2012. p. 341. Available at: Accessed May 15, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100D/mono100D-9.pdf.
24. Zhou H., Randers-Pehrson G., Suzuki M., et al. Genotoxic damage in non-irradiated cells: contribution from the bystander effect. Radiat Prot Dosimetry 2002, 99(1-4):227-232.
25. National Research Council Health effects of exposure to radon: BEIR VI. Committee on the health risks of exposure to radon 1999, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
26. Agricola G. 1556. De Re Metallica 1950, Dover Publications Inc, New York, p. 638. [Hoover HC, Hoover LH].
27. Schefflers C.L. Abhandlung von der Gesundheit der Bergleute 1770, Strossel, Chemnitz (Germany), p. 274.
28. Hesse W. Das Vorkommen von primärem Lungenkrebs bei den Bergleuten der consortschaftlichen Gruben in Schneeberg. Archiv der Heilkunde 1878, 19:160-162. [in German].
29. Harting F.H., Hesse W. Der Lungenkrebs, die bergkrankheit in den schneeberger gruben. Viertel Gerichtl Med Oeff Sanitaetswes 1879, 31:102-132. [in German].
30. Field R.W. Radon: an overview of health effects. Encyclopedia of environmental health 2011, vol. 4:745-753. Elsevier, Burlington (Ontario).
31. Lubin J.H. Environmental factors in cancer: radon. Rev Environ Health 2010, 25(1):33-38.
32. International Commission on Radiological Protection ICRP Publication 115: lung cancer risk from radon and progeny. Ann ICRP 2012, 40(1). Available at:. http://www.icrp.org/publication.asp%3Fid%3DICRP_Publication_115.
33. National Research Council, National Academy of Science. Uranium mining in Virginia: scientific, technical, environmental, human health and safety, and regulatory aspects of uranium mining and processing in Virginia, Prepublication, 2011. Available at: Accessed April 20, 2012. http://dels.nas.edu/Report/Uranium-Mining-Virginia-Scientific-Technical/13266.
34. Schubauer-Berigan M.K., Daniels R.D., Pinkerton L.E. Radon exposure and mortality among white and American Indian uranium miners: an update of the Colorado Plateau cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2009, 169(6):718-730.
35. Rage E., Vacquier B., Blanchardon E., et al. Risk of lung cancer mortality in relation to lung doses among French uranium miners: follow-up 1956-1999. Radiat Res 2012, 177(3):288-297.
36. Lane R.S., Frost S.E., Howe G.R., et al. Mortality (1950-1999) and cancer incidence (1969-1999) in the cohort of Eldorado uranium workers. Radiat Res 2010, 174(6):773-785.
37. Kreuzer M., Schnelzer M., Tschense A., et al. Cohort profile: the German uranium miners cohort study (WISMUT cohort), 1946-2003. Int J Epidemiol 2010, 39(4):980-987.
38. U.S. EPA EPA assessment of risks from radon in homes 2003, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, Washington, DC, Available at:, Accessed April 15, 2012. http://www.epa.gov/radiation/docs/assessment/402-r-03-003.pdf.
39. Lubin J.H., Wang Z.Y., Boice J.D., et al. Risk of lung cancer and residential radon in China: pooled results of two studies. Int J Cancer 2004, 109(1):132-137.
40. Darby S., Hill D., Deo H., et al. Residential radon and lung cancer-detailed results of a collaborative analysis of individual data on 7148 persons with lung cancer and 14208 persons without lung cancer from 13 epidemiologic studies in Europe. Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, 32:1-84.
41. Krewski D., Lubin J.H., Zielinski J.M., et al. Residential radon and risk of lung cancer-a combined analysis of 7 north American case-control studies. Epidemiology 2005, 16(2):137-145.
42. Field R.W., Smith B.J., Lynch C.F., et al. Intercomparison of radon exposure assessment methods: implications for residential radon risk assessment. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2002, 12(3):197-203.
43. US Environmental Protection Agency, US Department of Health and Human Services, US Department of Agriculture, US Department of Defense, US Department of Energy, US Department of Housing and Urban Development, US Department of Interior, US Department Veterans Affairs, and US General Services Administration. Protecting people and families from radon, a federal action plan for saving lives. 2011. Available at: Accessed April 3, 2012. http://www.epa.gov/radon/pdfs/Federal_Radon_Action_Plan.pdf.
44. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) Toxicological profile for plutonium 2010, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services, Atlanta (GA), Available at:, Accessed April 15, 2012. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp%3Fid%3D648%26tid%3D119.
45. IARC, Ionizing radiation, Part 2: some internally deposited radionuclides. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2001, 78:1-559.
46. Wing S., Richardson D., Wolf S., et al. Plutonium-related work and cause-specific mortality at the United States Department of Energy Hanford Site. Am J Ind Med 2004, 45:153-164.
47. Brown S.C., Ruttenber A.J. Lung cancer and plutonium exposure in Rocky Flat waters. Radiat Res 2005, 163:696-697.
48. Brown S.C., Schonbeck M.F., McClure D., et al. Lung cancer and internal lung doses among plutonium workers at the Rocky Flats Plant: a case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 2004, 160:163-172.
49. Kreisheimer M., Sokolnikov M.E., Koshurnikova N.A., et al. Lung cancer mortality among nuclear workers of the Mayak facilities in the former Soviet Union. An updated analysis considering smoking as the main confounding factor. Radiat Environ Biophys 2003, 42:129-135.
50. Shilnikova N.S., Preston D.L., Ron E., et al. Cancer mortality risk among workers at the Mayak nuclear complex. Radiat Res 2003, 159:787-798.
51. Jacob V., Jacob P., Meckbach R., et al. Lung cancer in Mayak workers: interaction of smoking and plutonium exposure. Radiat Environ Biophys 2005, 44:119-129.
52. Gilbert E.S., Koshurnikova N.A., Sokolnikov M.E., et al. Lung cancer in Mayak workers. Radiat Res 2004, 162:505-516.
53. Sokolnikov M.E., Gilbert E.S., Preston D.L., et al. Lung, liver and bone cancer mortality in Mayak workers. Int J Cancer 2008, 123:905-911.
54. UNSCEAR; United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation Report. Annex A. Epidemiological studies of radiation and cancer 2008, United Nations, New York.
55. National Research Council, Committee to Assess Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, Board on Radiation Effects Health risks from exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation: BEIR VII, Phase 2 2006, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
56. Preston D.L., Shimizu Y., Pierce D.A., et al. Studies of mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 13: solid cancer and noncancer disease mortality: 1950-1997. Radiat Res 2003, 160:381-407.
57. Preston D.L., Ron E., Tokuoka S., et al. Solid cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors: 1958-1998. Radiat Res 2007, 168:1-64.
58. Gilbert E.S., Stovall M., Gospodarowicz M., et al. Lung cancer after treatment for Hodgkin's disease: focus on radiation effects. Radiat Res 2003, 159:161-173.
59. Furukawa K., Preston D.L., Lonn S., et al. Radiation and smoking effects on lung cancer incidence among atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Res 2010, 174:72-82.
60. HSDB. Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. 2012. Available at: Accessed April 20, 2012. http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/f%3F./temp/%7EZkJdFQ:1.
61. NIOSH National occupational exposure survey (1981-83) 1990, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Available at:, Accessed April 21, 2012. http://www.cdc.gov/noes/noes1/x6315sic.html.
62. Krieger R.I., Dinoff T.M., Zhang X. Octachlorodipropyl ether (s-2) mosquito coils are inadequately studied for residential use in Asia and illegal in the United States. Environ Health Perspect 2003, 111(12):1439-1442.
63. Pauluhn J. Overview of inhalation exposure techniques: strengths and weaknesses. Exp Toxicol Pathol 2005, 57(1):111-128.
64. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: chemical agents and related occupations, bis(chloromethyl)ether. vol. 100F; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100F/mono100F-25.pdf.
65. Weiss W., Boucot K.R. The respiratory effects of chloromethyl methyl ether. JAMA 1975, 234:1139-1142.
66. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: chemical agents and related occupations, sulfur mustard. vol. 100F; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100F/mono100F-30.pdf.
67. IARC Genetic and related effects: an updating of selected IARC monographs from Volumes 1 to 42. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum Suppl 1987, 6:1-729.
68. National Toxicology Program. Report on carcinogens, 2011, coal tars and coal-tar pitches. 12th edition. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. p. 111-3. Available at: Accessed April 20, 2012. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/twelfth/profiles/CoalTars.pdf.
69. IARC Some non-heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and some related exposures. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2010, 92:1-853. Available at:, Accessed May 1, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol92/mono92.pdf.
70. Boffetta P.I., Burstyn T., Partanen H., et al. Cancer mortality among European asphalt workers: an international epidemiological study, results of the analysis based on job titles. Am J Ind Med 2003, 43:18-27.
71. Olsson A., Kromhout H., Agostini M., et al. A case-control study of lung cancer nested in a cohort of European asphalt workers. Environ Health Perspect 2010, 118(10):1418-1424.
72. National Toxicology Program. Report on carcinogens, 2011, soots. 12th edition. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. p. 379-80. Available at: Accessed April 20, 2012. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/twelfth/profiles/Soots.pdf.
73. National Chimney Sweep Guild. Available at: Accessed April 15, 2012. http://www.ncsg.org/.
74. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: chemical agents and related occupations, soot, as found in occupational exposures of chimney-sweeps. vol. 100F; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100F/mono100F-21.pdf.
75. Pukkala E., Martinsen J.I., Lynge E., et al. Occupation and cancer-follow-up of 15 million people in five Nordic countries. Acta Oncol 2009, 48:646-790.
76. McDonald J.D., Campen M.J., Harrod K.S., et al. Engine-operating load influences diesel exhaust composition and cardiopulmonary and immune responses. Environ Health Perspect 2011, 119(8):1136-1141.
77. Pronk A., Coble J., Stewart P.A. Occupational exposure to diesel exhaust: a literature review. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2009, 19:443-457.
78. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risks of Chemicals to Humans Diesel and Gasoline Engine Exhausts and Some Nitroarenes. Volume 46 1989, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon (France), Available at:, Accessed June 10, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol46/index.php.
79. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Diesel and gasoline engine exhausts and some nitroarenes. Lyon (France): vol. 105; 2012. p. 5-12. Available at: Accessed June 12, 2012. http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/2012/mono105-info.php.
80. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Diesel engine exhaust carcinogenic. Press release. Available at: Accessed June 12, 2012. http://press.iarc.fr/pr213_E.pdf.
81. National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services. Diesel exhaust particulates report on carcinogens. 12th Edition. 2011. Available at: Accessed June 12, 2012. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/twelfth/profiles/DieselExhaustParticulates.pdf.
82. Silverman D.T., Samanic C.M., Lubin J.H., et al. The diesel exhaust in miners study: a nested case-control study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust. J Natl Cancer Inst 2012, 104(11):855-868.
83. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: chemical agents and related occupations. vol. 100F; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 15, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100F/index.php.
84. Bosetti C., Boffetta P., La Vecchia C. Occupational exposures to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and respiratory and urinary tract cancers: a quantitative review to 2005. Ann Oncol 2007, 18:431-446.
85. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: chemical agents and related occupations, occupational exposure as a painter. vol. 100F; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 15, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100F/mono100F-35.pdf.
86. Bachand A., Mundt K.A., Mundt D.J., et al. Meta-analyses of occupational exposure as a painter and lung and bladder cancer morbidity and mortality 1950-2008. Crit Rev Toxicol 2010, 40(2):101-125.
87. Guha N., Merletti F., Steenland N.K. Lung cancer risk in painters: a meta-analysis. Environ Health Perspect 2010, 118:303-312.
88. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Occupational exposure in the rubber-manufacturing industry. vol. 100F; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 15, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100F/mono100F-36.pdf.
89. Fajen J.M., Carson G.A., Rounbehler D.P., et al. N-nitrosamines in the rubber and tire industry. Science 1979, 205:1262-1264.
90. International Agency for Research on Cancer Printing processes, printing inks, carbon blacks and some nitro compounds 1996, vol. 65. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon (France).
91. Straif K., Keil U., Taeger D., et al. Exposure to nitrosamines, carbon black, asbestos, and talc and mortality from stomach, lung, and laryngeal cancer in a cohort of rubber workers. Am J Epidemiol 2000, 152(4):297-306.
92. Alder N., Fenty J., Warren F., et al. Meta-analysis of mortality and cancer incidence among workers in the synthetic rubber-producing industry. Am J Epidemiol 2006, 164:405-420.
93. Taeger D., Weiland S.K., Sun Y., et al. Cancer and non-cancer mortality in a cohort of recent entrants (1981-2000) to the German rubber industry. Occup Environ Med 2007, 64:560-561.
94. Dost A., Straughan J., Sorahan T. A cohort mortality and cancer incidence survey of recent entrants (1982-91) to the UK rubber industry: findings for 1983-2004. Occup Med (Lond) 2007, 57:186-190.
95. Pira E., Pelucchi C., Romano C. Mortality from cancer and other causes in an Italian cohort of male rubber tire workers. J Occup Environ Med 2012, 54(3):345-349.
96. Toxicity of metals, occupational toxicology 2004, CRC Press, Boca Raton (FL). 2nd edition. C. Winder, N.H. Stacey (Eds.).
97. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts, arsenic and arsenic compounds. vol. 100C; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-6.pdf.
98. Lubin J.H., Moore L.E., Fraumeni J.F., et al. Respiratory cancer and inhaled inorganic arsenic in copper smelter workers: a linear relationship with cumulative exposure that increases with concentration. Environ Health Perspect 2008, 116(12):1661-1665. Epidemiology 2000;11(6):673-79.
99. Ferreccio C., González C., Milosavjlevic V., et al. Lung cancer and arsenic concentrations in drinking water in Chile. Epidemiology 2000, 11:673-679.
100. Cantor K.P., Lubin J.H. Arsenic, internal cancers, and issues in inference from studies of low level exposures in human populations. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2007, 222(3):252-257.
101. McCleskey T.M., Buchner V., Field R.W., et al. Recent advances in understanding the biomolecular basis of chronic beryllium disease: a review. Rev Environ Health 2009, 24(2):75-115.
102. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts, beryllium and beryllium compounds. vol. 100C; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-7.pdf.
103. United States General Accounting Office. Report to Congressional Requesters, Occupational Safety and Health, Government responses to beryllium uses and risks, GAO/OCG-00-6. 2000. Available at: Accessed May 1, 2012. http://www.dau.mil/educdept/mm_dept_resources/reports/Government-responses-to-Beryllium.pdf.
104. Materion Brush Inc. Sources of beryllium. Available at: Accessed May 17, 2012. http://www.beryllium.com/sources-beryllium.
105. Kreiss K., Day G.A., Schuler C.R. Beryllium: a modern industrial hazard. Annu Rev Public Health 2007, 28:259-277.
106. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) Toxicological profile for beryllium 2002, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta (GA).
107. NIOSH, Comments of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health on the Department of Energy. Request for information on Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program. Docket No. HS-RM-1 0-CBDPP RIN 1992-AA39, 2/22/11. Cincinnati (OH): Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2011.
108. IARC Beryllium, cadmium, mercury, and exposures in the glass manufacturing industry. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 1993, 58:1-415.
109. Schubauer-Berigan M.K., Deddens J.A., Steenland K., et al. Adjustment for temporal confounders in a reanalysis of a case-control study of beryllium and lung cancer. Occup Environ Med 2008, 65:379-383.
110. Deubner D.C., Roth H.D. Rejoinder: progress in understanding the relationship between beryllium exposure and lung cancer. Epidemiology 2009, 20:341-343.
111. Schubauer-Berigan M.K., Couch J.R., Petersen M.R., et al. Cohort mortality study of workers at seven beryllium processing plants: update and associations with cumulative and maximum exposure. Occup Environ Med 2011, 68(5):345-353.
112. Schubauer-Berigan M.K., Deddens J.A., Couch J.R., et al. Risk of lung cancer associated with quantitative beryllium exposure metrics within an occupational cohort. Occup Environ Med 2011, 68(5):354-360.
113. Boffetta P., Fryzek J.P., Mandel J. Occupational exposure to beryllium and cancer risk: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. Crit Rev Toxicol 2012, 42(2):107-118.
114. USGS Commodity Report. Cadmium. United States Geological Survey, Cadmium Statistics and Information. Available at: Accessed May 18, 2012. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cadmium/.
115. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Draft toxicological profile for cadmium. 2008. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp5.pdf.
116. National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services. Report on carcinogens. 12th edition (2011). Cadmium and cadmium compounds. CAS No. 7440-43-9 (Cadmium). Available at: Accessed May 18, 2012. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/twelfth/profiles/Cadmium.pdf.
117. US Geological Survey. Minerals yearbook. US Department of the Interior. Cadmium, by Amy C. Tolcin. 2010. Available at: Accessed May 18, 2012. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cadmium/myb1-2010-cadmi.pdf.
118. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts, beryllium and beryllium compounds, cadmium and cadmium compounds. vol. 100C; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-8.pdf.
119. Beveridge R., Pintos J., Parent M.E., et al. Lung cancer risk associated with occupational exposure to nickel, chromium VI, and cadmium in two population-based case-control studies in Montreal. Am J Ind Med 2010, 53(5):476-485.
120. Park R.M., Stayner L.T., Petersen M.R., et al. Cadmium and lung cancer mortality accounting for simultaneous arsenic exposure. Occup Environ Med 2012, 69(5):303-309.
121. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Department of Labor Occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium. Final rule. Fed Regist 2006, 71:10099-10385.
122. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Toxicological profile for chromium. (Draft for public comment) 2008, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta (GA).
123. Luo J., Hendryx M., Ducatman A. Association between six environmental chemicals and lung cancer incidence in the United States. J Environ Public Health 2011, 2011. Article ID 463701. Available at:, Accessed May 18, 2012. http://www.hindawi.com/journals/jeph/2011/463701/.
124. NIOSH. Hexavalent chromium, criteria document update, external review draft, occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 2008.
125. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts, chromium (VI) compounds. vol. 100C; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-9.pdf.
126. USGS. 2009 Minerals yearbook, nickel (advance release). US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nickel/myb1-2009-nicke.pdf.
127. National Toxicology Program Nickel compounds and metallic nickel substance profiles. Report on Carcinogens 2011, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Available at:, Accessed May 18, 2012. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/twelfth/roc12.pdf, 12th edition.
128. Davis J.R. Uses of nickel. ASM specialty handbook: nickel, cobalt, and their alloys. ASM International 2000, 7-13. Available at:, Accessed April 25, 2012. http://www.knovel.com/web/portal/browse/display%3F_EXT_KNOVEL_DISPLAY_bookid=3142%26VerticalID%3D0.
129. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts, nickel and nickel compounds. vol. 100C; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-8.pdf.
130. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Toxicological profile for nickel 2005, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta (GA).
131. Grimsrud T.K., Berge S.R., Martinsen J.I., et al. Lung cancer incidence among Norwegian nickel-refinery workers 1953-2000. J Environ Monit 2003, 5:190-197.
132. Grimsrud T.K., Berge S.R., Haldorsen T., et al. Can lung cancer risk among nickel refinery workers be explained by occupational exposures other than nickel?. Epidemiology 2005, 16:146-154.
133. Andersen A., Berge S.R., Engeland A., et al. Exposure to nickel compounds and smoking in relation to incidence of lung and nasal cancer among nickel refinery workers. Occup Environ Med 1996, 53:708-713.
134. Grimsrud T.K., Berge S.R., Haldorsen T., et al. Exposure to different forms of nickel and risk of lung cancer. Am J Epidemiol 2002, 156:1123-1132.
135. Goodman J.E., Prueitt R.L., Dodge D.G., et al. Carcinogenicity assessment of water-soluble nickel compounds. Crit Rev Toxicol 2009, 39(5):365-417.
136. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts, nickel and nickel compounds. vol. 100C; 2012. Available at: Accessed April 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/100C-05-Table2.3.pdf.
137. Grimsrud T.K., Andersen A. Unrecognized risks of nickel-related respiratory cancer among Canadian electrolysis workers. Scand J Work Environ Health 2012, [Epup ahead of print].
138. De Matteis S., Consonni D., Lubin J.H., et al. Impact of occupational carcinogens on lung cancer risk in a general population. Int J Epidemiol 2012, 41(3):711-721.
139. National Toxicology Program. Asbestos, Department of Health and Human Services report on carcinogens. 12th edition. 2011. Available at: Accessed May 27, 2012. http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/twelfth/profiles/Asbestos.pdf.
140. US EPA. Asbestos ban and phase out. US Environmental Protection Agency. Available at: Accessed May 27, 2012. http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/pubs/ban.html.
141. US Geological Survey. Mineral commodity summaries, asbestos. 2012. Available at: Accessed May 27, 2012. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/asbestos/mcs-2012-asbes.pdf.
142. ATSDR. Toxicological profile for asbestos. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2001. Available at: Accessed May 15, 2012. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp61.pdf.
143. Suvatne J., Browning R.F. Asbestos and lung cancer. Dis Mon 2011, 57:55-68.
144. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts, asbestos (chrysotile, amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, actinolite, and anthophyllite). vol. 100C; 2012. Available at: Accessed May 25, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-11.pdf.
145. Yarborough C.M. Chrysotile as a cause of mesothelioma: an assessment based on epidemiology. Crit Rev Toxicol 2006, 36:165-187.
146. Hodgson J.T., Darnton A. The quantitative risks of mesothelioma and lung cancer in relation to asbestos exposure. Ann Occup Hyg 2000, 44:565-601.
147. Stayner L.T., Dankovic D.A., Lemen R.A. Occupational exposure to chrysotile asbestos and cancer risk: a review of the amphibole hypothesis. Am J Public Health 1996, 86(2):179-186.
148. Berman D.W., Crump K.S. Update of potency factors for asbestos-related lung cancer and mesothelioma. Crit Rev Toxicol 2008, 38(Suppl):11-47.
149. Stayner L., Kuempel E., Gilbert S., et al. An epidemiological study of the role of chrysotile asbestos fibre dimensions in determining respiratory disease risk in exposed workers. Occup Environ Med 2008, 65:613-619.
150. Lenters V., Vermeulen R., Dogger S. A meta-analysis of asbestos and lung cancer: is better quality exposure assessment associated with steeper slopes of the exposure-response relationships?. Environ Health Perspect 2011, 119:1547-1555.
151. Loomis D., Dement J.M., Richardson D., et al. Asbestos fibre dimensions and lung cancer mortality among workers exposed to chrysotile. Occup Environ Med 2009, 67:580-584.
152. Mirabelli D., Calisti R., Barone-Adesi F., et al. Excess of mesotheliomas after exposure to chrysotile in Balangero, Italy. Occup Environ Med 2008, 65:815-819.
153. Loomis D., Dement J.M., Wolf S.H., et al. Lung cancer mortality and fibre exposures among North Carolina asbestos textile workers. Occup Environ Med 2009, 66(8):535-542.
154. Elliott L., Loomis D., Dement J., et al. Lung cancer mortality in North Carolina and South Carolina chrysotile asbestos textile workers. Occup Environ Med 2012, 69(6):385-390.
155. Loomis D., Dement J.M., Elliott L., et al. Increased lung cancer mortality among chrysotile asbestos textile workers is more strongly associated with exposure to long thin fibres. Occup Med 2012, 69(8):564-568.
156. US Department of the Interior, US Bureau of Mines, US Geological Survey, staff, Branch of Industrial Minerals. Crystalline silica primer. Available at: Accessed June 3, 2012. http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/silica/780292.pdf.
157. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention NIOSH Hazard review, health effects of occupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica 2002, DHHS (NIOSH), Cincinnati (OH), Publication No. 2002-129.
158. Esswein E, Kiefer MS, Snawder J, et al. Worker exposure to crystalline silica during hydraulic fracturing. NIOSH Science Blog, Safer Healthier Workers, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: Accessed June 4, 2012. http://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2012/05/silica-fracking/.
159. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens: silica dust, crystalline, in the form of quartz or cristobalite. vol. 100C; 2012. Available at: Accessed May 1, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-14.pdf.
160. Steenland K., Sanderson W. Lung cancer among industrial sand workers exposed to crystalline silica. Am J Epidemiol 2001, 153:695-703.
161. Lacasse Y., Martin S., Gagné D., et al. Dose response meta-analysis of silica and lung cancer. Cancer Causes Control 2009, 20:925-933.
162. Erren T.C., Glende C.B., Morfeld P., et al. Is exposure to silica associated with lung cancer in the absence of silicosis? A meta-analytical approach to an important public health question. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2009, 82:997-1004.
163. Pelucchi C., Pira E., Piolatto G., et al. Occupational silica exposure and lung cancer risk: a review of epidemiological studies 1996-2005. Ann Oncol 2006, 17:1039-1050.
164. Borm P.J., Tran L., Donaldson K. The carcinogenic action of crystalline silica: a review of the evidence supporting secondary inflammation-driven genotoxicity as a principal mechanism. Crit Rev Toxicol 2011, 9:756-770.
165. Checkoway H., Franzblau A. Is silicosis required for silica-associated lung cancer?. Am J Ind Med 2000, 37:252-259.
166. Stayner L. Silica and lung cancer: when is enough evidence enough?. Epidemiology 2007, 18:23-24.
167. Mannetje A., Brennan P., Zaridze D., et al. Welding and lung cancer in Central and Eastern Europe and the United Kingdom. Am J Epidemiol 2012, 175(7):706-714.
168. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans. Priority agents for future IARC Monographs. Available at: Accessed June 12, 2012. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Meetings/PriorityAgents.pdf.