Intracranial Hemorrhage

Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 771-794

  Caceres, J Alfredo ^a   Goldstein, Joshua N ^a,b  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute stroke; Intracerebral hemorrhage; Intracranial hemorrhage; Subarachnoid hemorrhage

Indexed keywords

ALTEPLASE; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; APIXABAN; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 9 COMPLEX; CAPTOPRIL; DABIGATRAN; ENALAPRIL; ESMOLOL; ETIRACETAM; FOSPHENYTOIN SODIUM; FRESH FROZEN PLASMA; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; HEPARINOID; HYDRALAZINE; LABETALOL; NICARDIPINE; NITROPRUSSIDE SODIUM; PLACEBO; PROTAMINE SULFATE; PROTHROMBIN COMPLEX; RECOMBINANT BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 9; RIVAROXABAN; URAPIDIL; VALPROIC ACID; VITAMIN K GROUP; WARFARIN;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ANEMIA; ANEURYSM SURGERY; ANTICOAGULATION; BLOOD CLOT LYSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; BRAIN HEMATOMA; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; BRAIN VASOSPASM; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; COMA; COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC ANGIOGRAPHY; DIGITAL SUBTRACTION ANGIOGRAPHY; DRUG ABUSE; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; EMERGENCY WARD; ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION; FEVER; GLASGOW COMA SCALE; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HEADACHE; HEMOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE; LUMBAR PUNCTURE; MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY; MORTALITY; NAUSEA; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEIZURE; STIFF NECK; STROKE; SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE; SURGICAL DRAINAGE; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; THROMBOCYTE FUNCTION; THROMBOCYTE TRANSFUSION; THROMBOEMBOLISM; TRANSFUSION RELATED ACUTE LUNG INJURY; VOMITING;

EID: 84866152717     PISSN: 07338627     EISSN: 07338627     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.emc.2012.06.003     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. van Asch C.J., Luitse M.J.A., Rinkel G.J.E., et al. Incidence, case fatality, and functional outcome of intracerebral haemorrhage over time, according to age, sex, and ethnic origin: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol 2010, 9(2):167-176.
2. Aguilar M.I., Freeman W.D. Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Semin Neurol 2010, 30(5):555-564.
3. Broderick J., Connolly S., Feldmann E., et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage in adults. Stroke 2007, 38(6):2001-2023.
4. Elliott J., Smith M. The acute management of intracerebral hemorrhage: a clinical review. Anesth Analg 2010, 110(5):1419-1427.
5. Feigin V.L., Lawes C.M.M., Bennett D.A., et al. Worldwide stroke incidence and early case fatality reported in 56 population-based studies: a systematic review. Lancet Neurol 2009, 8(4):355-369.
6. Labovitz D.L., Halim A., Boden-Albala B., et al. The incidence of deep and lobar intracerebral hemorrhage in whites, blacks, and Hispanics. Neurology 2005, 65(4):518-522.
7. Ayala C., Greenlund K.J., Croft J.B., et al. Racial/ethnic disparities in mortality by stroke subtype in the United States, 1995-1998. Am J Epidemiol 2001, 154(11):1057-1063.
8. Qureshi A.I., Giles W.H., Croft J.B. Racial differences in the incidence of intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 1999, 52(8):1617.
9. Matsukawa H., Shinoda M., Fujii M., et al. Factors associated with lobar vs. non-lobar intracerebral hemorrhage. Acta Neurol Scand 2011, 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2011.01615.x.
10. Ariesen M.J., Claus S.P., Rinkel G.J.E., et al. Risk factors for intracerebral hemorrhage in the general population. Stroke 2003, 34(8):2060-2065.
11. Maia L.F., Mackenzie I.R., Feldman H.H. Clinical phenotypes of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. J Neurol Sci 2007, 257(1-2):23-30.
12. Badjatia N., Rosand J. Intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurologist 2005, 11(6):311-324.
13. Wieberdink R.G., Poels M.M.F., Vernooij M.W., et al. Serum lipid levels and the risk of intracerebral hemorrhage: the Rotterdam Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2011, 31(12):2982-2989.
14. Biffi A., Sonni A., Anderson C.D., et al. Variants at APOE influence risk of deep and lobar intracerebral hemorrhage. Ann Neurol 2010, 68(6):934-943.
15. Brouwers H.B., Biffi A., Ayres A.M., et al. Apolipoprotein e genotype predicts hematoma expansion in lobar intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2012, 43(6):1490-1495.
16. Flaherty M.L. Anticoagulant-associated intracerebral hemorrhage. Semin Neurol 2010, 30(5):565-572.
17. Martin-Schild S., Albright K.C., Hallevi H., et al. Intracerebral hemorrhage in cocaine users. Stroke 2010, 41(4):680-684.
18. Fisher C.M. Pathological observations in hypertensive cerebral hemorrhage. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1971, 30(3):536-550.
19. Vinters H. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy. A critical review. Stroke 1987, 18(2):311-324.
20. Viswanathan A., Greenberg S.M. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the elderly. Ann Neurol 2011, 70(6):871-880.
21. Aronowski J., Zhao X. Molecular pathophysiology of cerebral hemorrhage: secondary brain injury. Stroke 2011, 42(6):1781-1786.
22. Brott T., Broderick J., Kothari R., et al. Early hemorrhage growth in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 1997, 28(1):1-5.
23. Runchey S., Mc Gee S. Clinical findings distinguishing hemorrhagic stroke from ischemic stroke. JAMA 2010, 30(22):2280-2286.
24. Panagos P.D., Jauch E.C., Broderick J.P. Intracerebral hemorrhage. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2002, 20(3):631-655.
25. Kothari R.U., Brott T., Broderick J.P., et al. The ABCs of measuring intracerebral hemorrhage volumes. Stroke 1996, 27(8):1304-1305.
26. Delgado Almandoz J.E., Romero J.M. Advanced CT imaging in the evaluation of hemorrhagic stroke. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2011, 21(2):197-213.
27. Oleinik A., Romero J.M., Schwab K., et al. CT angiography for intracerebral hemorrhage does not increase risk of acute nephropathy. Stroke 2009, 40(7):2393-2397.
28. Delgado Almandoz J.E., Schaefer P.W., Forero N.P., et al. Diagnostic accuracy and yield of multidetector CT angiography in the evaluation of spontaneous intraparenchymal cerebral hemorrhage. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2009, 30(6):1213-1221.
29. Goldstein J.N., Fazen L.E., Snider R., et al. Contrast extravasation on CT angiography predicts hematoma expansion in intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2007, 68(12):889-894.
30. Kim J., Smith A., Hemphill J.C., et al. Contrast extravasation on CT predicts mortality in primary intracerebral hemorrhage. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2008, 29(3):520-525.
31. Hallevi H., Abraham A.T., Barreto A.D., et al. The spot sign in intracerebral hemorrhage: the importance of looking for contrast extravasation. Cerebrovasc Dis 2010, 29(3):217-220.
32. Wada R., Aviv R.I., Fox A.J., et al. CT angiography spot sign predicts hematoma expansion in acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2007, 38(4):1257-1262.
33. Kidwell C.S., Chalela J.A., Saver J.L., et al. Comparison of MRI and CT for detection of acute intracerebral hemorrhage. JAMA 2004, 292(15):1823-1830.
34. Smith S.D., Eskey C.J. Hemorrhagic stroke. Radiol Clin North Am 2011, 49(1):27-45.
35. DeLano M.C., DeMarco J.K. 3.0 T versus 1.5 T MR angiography of the head and neck. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2006, 16(2):321-341.
36. Rincon F., Mayer S. Clinical review: critical care management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Crit Care 2008, 12(6):237.
37. Goldstein J., Gilson A. Critical care management of acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2011, 13(2):204-216.
38. Morgenstern L.B., Hemphill J.C., Anderson C., et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2010, 41(9):2108-2129.
39. Anderson C.S., Huang Y., Wang J.G., et al. Intensive blood pressure reduction in acute cerebral haemorrhage trial (INTERACT): a randomised pilot trial. Lancet Neurol 2008, 7(5):391-399.
40. Antihypertensive Treatment of Acute Cerebral Hemorrhage (ATACH) investigators Antihypertensive treatment of acute cerebral hemorrhage. Crit Care Med 2010, 38(2):637-648.
41. Qureshi A., Palesch Y. Antihypertensive Treatment of Acute Cerebral Hemorrhage (ATACH) II: design, methods, and rationale. Neurocrit Care 2011, 15(3):559-576.
42. Delcourt C., Huang Y., Wang J., et al. The second (main) phase of an open, randomised, multicentre study to investigate the effectiveness of an intensive blood pressure reduction in acute cerebral haemorrhage trial (INTERACT2). Int J Stroke 2010, 5(2):110-116.
43. Butcher K., Jeerakathil T., Emery D., et al. The intracerebral haemorrhage acutely decreasing arterial pressure trial: ICH ADAPT. Int J Stroke 2010, 5(3):227-233.
44. Steiner T., Kaste M., Forsting M., et al. Recommendations for the management of intracranial haemorrhage-part I: spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage. The European Stroke Initiative Writing Committee and the Writing Committee for the EUSI Executive Committee. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006, 22(4):294-316.
45. Mayer S.A., Brun N.C., Begtrup K., et al. Efficacy and safety of recombinant activated factor VII for acute intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2008, 358(20):2127-2137.
46. Aguilar M.I., Hart R.G., Kase C.S., et al. Treatment of warfarin-associated intracerebral hemorrhage: literature review and expert opinion. Mayo Clin Proc 2007, 82(1):82-92.
47. Watson H.G., Baglin T., Laidlaw S.L., et al. A comparison of the efficacy and rate of response to oral and intravenous Vitamin K in reversal of over-anticoagulation with warfarin. Br J Haematol 2001, 115(1):145-149.
48. Goodnough L.T., Shander A. How I treat warfarin-associated coagulopathy in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. Blood 2011, 117(23):6091-6099.
49. Recommendations for the management of intracranial haemorrhage-part I: spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006, 22(4):294-316.
50. Goldstein J., Rosand J., Schwamm L. Warfarin reversal in anticoagulant-associated intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2008, 9(2):277-283.
51. O'Shaughnessy D.F., Atterbury C., Bolton Maggs P., et al. Guidelines for the use of fresh-frozen plasma, cryoprecipitate and cryosupernatant. Br J Haematol 2004, 126(1):11-28.
52. Steiner T., Rosand J., Diringer M. Intracerebral hemorrhage associated with oral anticoagulant therapy. Stroke 2006, 37(1):256-262.
53. Goldstein J.N., Thomas S.H., Frontiero V., et al. Timing of fresh frozen plasma administration and rapid correction of coagulopathy in warfarin-related intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2006, 37(1):151-155.
54. Bershad E., Suarez J. Prothrombin complex concentrates for oral anticoagulant therapy-related intracranial hemorrhage: a review of the literature. Neurocrit Care 2010, 12(3):403-413.
55. Holland L., Warkentin T.E., Refaai M., et al. Suboptimal effect of a three-factor prothrombin complex concentrate (Profilnine-SD) in correcting supratherapeutic international normalized ratio due to warfarin overdose. Transfusion 2009, 49(6):1171-1177.
56. Dentali F., Marchesi C., Pierfranceschi M.G., et al. Safety of prothrombin complex concentrates for rapid anticoagulation reversal of vitamin K antagonists. A meta-analysis. Thromb Haemost 2011, 106(3):429-438.
57. Goldstein J.N., Fazen L.E., Wendell L., et al. Risk of thromboembolism following acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2009, 10(1):28-34.
58. Gurol M., Greenberg S. Management of intracerebral hemorrhage. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2008, 10(4):324-331.
59. Thompson B.B., Bejot Y., Caso V., et al. Prior antiplatelet therapy and outcome following intracerebral hemorrhage: a systematic review. Neurology 2010, 75(15):1333-1342.
60. Naidech A.M., Liebling S.M., Rosenberg N.F., et al. Early platelet transfusion improves platelet activity and may improve outcomes after intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2012, 16(1):82-87.
61. de Gans K., de Haan R., Majoie C., et al. Patch: platelet transfusion in cerebral haemorrhage: study protocol for a multicentre, randomised, controlled trial. BMC Neurol 2010, 10(1):19.
62. Granger C.B., Alexander J.H., McMurray J.J., et al. Apixaban versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2011, 365(11):981-992.
63. Patel M.R., Mahaffey K.W., Garg J., et al. Rivaroxaban versus warfarin in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2011, 365(10):883-891.
64. Connolly S.J., Ezekowitz M.D., Yusuf S., et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2009, 361(12):1139-1151.
65. van Ryn J., Stangier J., Haertter S., et al. Dabigatran etexilate-a novel, reversible, oral direct thrombin inhibitor: interpretation of coagulation assays and reversal of anticoagulant activity. Thromb Haemost 2010, 103(6):1116-1127.
66. Eerenberg E.S., Kamphuisen P.W., Sijpkens M.K., et al. Reversal of rivaroxaban and dabigatran by prothrombin complex concentrate: a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study in healthy subjects. Circulation 2011, 124(14):1573-1579.
67. Watanabe M., Siddiqui F.M., Qureshi A.I. Incidence and management of ischemic stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage in patients on dabigatran etexilate treatment. Neurocrit Care 2012, 16(1):203-209.
68. Rangel-Castillo L., Gopinath S., Robertson C.S. Management of intracranial hypertension. Neurol Clin 2008, 26(2):521-541.
69. Helbok R., Kurtz P., Schmidt J.M., et al. Effect of mannitol on brain metabolism and tissue oxygenation in severe haemorrhagic stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2011, 82(4):378-383.
70. Stead L., Jain A., Bellolio M., et al. Emergency department hyperglycemia as a predictor of early mortality and worse functional outcome after intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2010, 13(1):67-74.
71. Kimura K., Iguchi Y., Inoue T., et al. Hyperglycemia independently increases the risk of early death in acute spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. J Neurol Sci 2007, 255(1-2):90-94.
72. Middleton S., McElduff P., Ward J., et al. Implementation of evidence-based treatment protocols to manage fever, hyperglycaemia, and swallowing dysfunction in acute stroke (QASC): a cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2011, 378(9804):1699-1706.
73. Kumar M.A., Rost N.S., Snider R.W., et al. Anemia and hematoma volume in acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Crit Care Med 2009, 37(4):1442-1447.
74. Sheth K.N., et al. Packed red blood cell transfusion and decreased mortality in intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 2011, 68(5):1286-1292.
75. Claassen J., Jetté N., Chum F., et al. Electrographic seizures and periodic discharges after intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2007, 69(13):1356-1365.
76. Vespa P.M., O'Phelan K., Shah M., et al. Acute seizures after intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2003, 60(9):1441-1446.
77. De Herdt V., Dumont F., Hénon H., et al. Early seizures in intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2011, 77(20):1794-1800.
78. Passero S., Rocchi R., Rossi S., et al. Seizures after spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage. Epilepsia 2002, 43(10):1175-1180.
79. Reddig R.T., Nixdorf K.E., Jensen M.B. The prophylactic use of an antiepileptic drug in intracerebral hemorrhage. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2011, 113(10):895-897.
80. Naidech A.M., Garg R.K., Liebling S., et al. Anticonvulsant use and outcomes after intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2009, 40(12):3810-3815.
81. Messé S., Sansing L., Cucchiara B., et al. Prophylactic antiepileptic drug use is associated with poor outcome following ICH. Neurocrit Care 2009, 11(1):38-44.
82. Smith M. Monitoring intracranial pressure in traumatic brain injury. Anesth Analg 2008, 106(1):240-248.
83. Hallevi H., Albright K.C., Aronowski J., et al. Intraventricular hemorrhage. Neurology 2008, 70(11):848-852.
84. Tuhrim S., Horowitz D.R., Sacher M., et al. Volume of ventricular blood is an important determinant of outcome in supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage. Crit Care Med 1999, 27(3):617-621.
85. Naff N., Williams M.A., Keyl P.M., et al. Low-dose recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator enhances clot resolution in brain hemorrhage. Stroke 2011, 42(11):3009-3016.
86. Gaberel T., Magheru C., Parienti J-J., et al. Intraventricular fibrinolysis versus external ventricular drainage alone in intraventricular hemorrhage. Stroke 2011, 42(10):2776-2781.
87. Mendelow A.D., Gregson B.A., Fernandes H.M., et al. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral haematomas in the International Surgical Trial in Intracerebral Haemorrhage (STICH): a randomised trial. Lancet 2005, 365(9457):387-397.
88. Mendelow A.D., Gregson B., Mitchell P., et al. Surgical trial in lobar intracerebral haemorrhage (STICH II) protocol. Trials 2011, 12(1):124.
89. Morgenstern L.B., Demchuk A.M., Kim D.H., et al. Rebleeding leads to poor outcome in ultra-early craniotomy for intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2001, 56(10):1294-1299.
90. Tan S.H., Ng P.Y., Yeo T.T., et al. Hypertensive basal ganglia hemorrhage: a prospective study comparing surgical and nonsurgical management. Surg Neurol 2001, 56(5):287-292.
91. Zhou H., Zhang Y., Liu L., et al. A prospective controlled study: minimally invasive stereotactic puncture therapy versus conventional craniotomy in the treatment of acute intracerebral hemorrhage. BMC Neurol 2011, 11(1):76.
92. Wang W.Z., Jiang B., Liu H-M., et al. Minimally invasive craniopuncture therapy vs. conservative treatment for spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: results from a randomized clinical trial in China. Int J Stroke 2009, 4(1):11-16.
93. Marquardt G., Wolff R., Janzen R.W.C., et al. Basal ganglia haematomas in non-comatose patients: subacute stereotactic aspiration improves long-term outcome in comparison to purely medical treatment. Neurosurg Rev 2005, 28(1):64-69.
94. Hemphill J.C., Bonovich D.C., Besmertis L., et al. The ICH score: a simple, reliable grading scale for intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2001, 32(4):891-897.
95. Rost N.S., Smith E.E., Chang Y., et al. Prediction of functional outcome in patients with primary intracerebral hemorrhage: the FUNC score. Stroke 2008, 39(8):2304-2309.
96. Zahuranec D.B., Brown D.L., Lisabeth L.D., et al. Early care limitations independently predict mortality after intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2007, 68(20):1651-1657.
97. van Gijn J., Rinkel G.J. Subarachnoid haemorrhage: diagnosis, causes and management. Brain 2001, 124(2):249-278.
98. de Rooij N.K., Linn F.H.H., van der Plas J.A., et al. Incidence of subarachnoid haemorrhage: a systematic review with emphasis on region, age, gender and time trends. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007, 78(12):1365-1372.
99. Zacharia B.E., Hickman Z.L., Grobelny B.T., et al. Epidemiology of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2010, 21(2):221-233.
100. Feigin V.L., Rinkel G.J.E., Lawes C.M.M., et al. Risk factors for subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2005, 36(12):2773-2780.
101. Anderson C.S., Feigin V., Bennett D., et al. Active and passive smoking and the risk of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2004, 35(3):633-637.
102. Broderick J.P., Viscoli C.M., Brott T., et al. Major risk factors for aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage in the young are modifiable. Stroke 2003, 34(6):1375-1381.
103. Vannemreddy P., Caldito G., Willis B., et al. Influence of cocaine on ruptured intracranial aneurysms: a case control study of poor prognostic indicators. J Neurol 2008, 108(3):470-476.
104. Ferro J., Canhão P., Peralta R. Update on subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol 2008, 255(4):465-479.
105. Vlak M.H., Algra A., Brandenburg R., et al. Prevalence of unruptured intracranial aneurysms, with emphasis on sex, age, comorbidity, country, and time period: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol 2011, 10(7):626-636.
106. Wermer M.J., van der Schaaf I.C., Algra A., et al. Risk of rupture of unruptured intracranial aneurysms in relation to patient and aneurysm characteristics. Stroke 2007, 38(4):1404-1410.
107. Wiebers D.O. Unruptured intracranial aneurysms: natural history, clinical outcome, and risks of surgical and endovascular treatment. Lancet 2003, 362(9378):103-110.
108. Ishibashi T., Murayama Y., Urashima M., et al. Unruptured intracranial aneurysms. Stroke 2009, 40(1):313-316.
109. Lerch C., Yonekawa Y., Muroi C., et al. Specialized neurocritical care, severity grade, and outcome of patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2006, 5(2):85-92.
110. Rosengart A.J., Schultheiss K.E., Tolentino J., et al. Prognostic factors for outcome in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2007, 38(8):2315-2321.
111. Risselada R., Lingsma H.F., Bauer-Mehren A., et al. Prediction of 60 day case-fatality after aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage: results from the International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT). Eur J Epidemiol 2010, 25(4):261-266.
112. Kelly M.E., Dodd R., Steinberg G.K. Chapter 39 subarachnoid hemorrhage. Handbook of clinical neurology 2008, 791-808. Elsevier, Amsterdam. F. Marc (Ed.).
113. Penn D.L., Komotar R.J., Sander Connolly E. Hemodynamic mechanisms underlying cerebral aneurysm pathogenesis. J Clin Neurosci 2011, 18(11):1435-1438.
114. Polmear A. Sentinel headaches in aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage: what is the true incidence? A systematic review. Cephalalgia 2003, 23(10):935-941.
115. Perry J.J., Stiell I.G., Sivilotti M.L., et al. High risk clinical characteristics for subarachnoid haemorrhage in patients with acute headache: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2010, 341:c5204.
116. Shinohara Y. Hemorrhagic stroke syndromes: clinical manifestations of intracerebral and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Handbook of clinical neurology 2008, 577-594. Elsevier, Amsterdam. F. Marc (Ed.).
117. Suarez J.I., Tarr R.W., Selman W.R. Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2006, 354(4):387-396.
118. van Gijn J., Kerr R.S., Rinkel G.J. Subarachnoid haemorrhage. Lancet 2007, 369(9558):306-318.
119. Hassan A., Lanzino G., Wijdicks E., et al. Terson's syndrome. Neurocrit Care 2011, 15(3):554-558.
120. Vermeulen M.J., Schull M.J. Missed diagnosis of subarachnoid hemorrhage in the emergency department. Stroke 2007, 38(4):1216-1221.
121. McCormack R.F., Hutson A. Can computed tomography angiography of the brain replace lumbar puncture in the evaluation of acute-onset headache after a negative noncontrast cranial computed tomography scan?. Acad Emerg Med 2010, 17(4):444-451.
122. Perry J.J., Stiell I.G., Sivilotti M.L., et al. Sensitivity of computed tomography performed within six hours of onset of headache for diagnosis of subarachnoid haemorrhage: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2011, 343:d4277.
123. Provenzale J., Hacein-Bey L. CT evaluation of subarachnoid hemorrhage: a practical review for the radiologist interpreting emergency room studies. Emerg Radiol 2009, 16(6):441-451.
124. Karttunen A.I., Jartti P.H., Ukkola V.A., et al. Value of the quantity and distribution of subarachnoid haemorrhage on CT in the localization of a ruptured cerebral aneurysm. Acta Neurochir 2003, 145(8):655-661.
125. Tryfonidis M., Evans A.L., Coley S.C., et al. The value of radio-anatomical features on non-contrast CT scans in localizing the source in aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. Clin Anat 2007, 20(6):618-623.
126. Hoh B.L., Cheung A.C., Rabinov J.D., et al. Results of a prospective protocol of computed tomographic angiography in place of catheter angiography as the only diagnostic and pretreatment planning study for cerebral aneurysms by a combined neurovascular team. Neurosurgery 2004, 54(6):1329-1340. [discussion: 1340-2].
127. Westerlaan H.E., van Dijk J.M.C., Jansen-van der Weide M.C., et al. Intracranial aneurysms in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage: CT angiography as a primary examination tool for diagnosis-systematic review and meta-analysis. Radiology 2011, 258(1):134-145.
128. Prestigiacomo C.J., Sabit A., He W., et al. Three dimensional CT angiography versus digital subtraction angiography in the detection of intracranial aneurysms in subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurointerv Surg 2010, 2(4):385-389.
129. Diringer M., Bleck T., Claude Hemphill J., et al. Critical care management of patients following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: recommendations from the Neurocritical Care Society's Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference. Neurocrit Care 2011, 15(2):211-240.
130. Vermeulen M., van Gijn J. The diagnosis of subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990, 53(5):365-372.
131. Edlow J.A., Panagos P.D., Godwin S.A., et al. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients presenting to the emergency department with acute headache. Ann Emerg Med 2008, 52(4):407-436.
132. Edlow J.A. What are the unintended consequences of changing the diagnostic paradigm for subarachnoid hemorrhage after brain computed tomography to computed tomographic angiography in place of lumbar puncture?. Acad Emerg Med 2010, 17(9):991-995. [discussion: 996-7].
133. Roost K.T., Pimstone N.R., Diamond I., et al. The formation of cerebrospinal fluid xanthochromia after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 1972, 22(9):973.
134. Petzold A., Keir G., Sharpe L.T. Spectrophotometry for xanthochromia. N Engl J Med 2004, 351(16):1695-1696.
135. Wood M.J., Dimeski G., Nowitzke A.M. CSF spectrophotometry in the diagnosis and exclusion of spontaneous subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Clin Neurosci 2005, 12(2):142-146.
136. Perry J.J., Sivilotti M.L.A., Stiell I.G., et al. Should spectrophotometry be used to identify xanthochromia in the cerebrospinal fluid of alert patients suspected of having subarachnoid hemorrhage?. Stroke 2006, 37(10):2467-2472.
137. Edlow J.A., Bruner K.S., Horowitz G.L. Xanthochromia. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2002, 126(4):413-415.
138. Linn F.H.H., Voorbij H.A.M., Rinkel G.J.E., et al. Visual inspection versus spectrophotometry in detecting bilirubin in cerebrospinal fluid. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005, 76(10):1452-1454.
139. Kidwell C.S., Wintermark M. Imaging of intracranial haemorrhage. Lancet Neurol 2008, 7(3):256-267.
140. Mitchell P., Wilkinson I.D., Hoggard N., et al. Detection of subarachnoid haemorrhage with magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001, 70(2):205-211.
141. U-King-Im J.M., Koo B., Trivedi R.A., et al. Current diagnostic approaches to subarachnoid haemorrhage. Eur Radiol 2005, 15(6):1135-1147.
142. Hunt W.E., Hess R.M. Surgical risk as related to time of intervention in the repair of intracranial aneurysms. J Neurosurg 1968, 28(1):14-20.
143. Rosen D., MacDonald R. Subarachnoid hemorrhage grading scales. Neurocrit Care 2005, 2(2):110-118.
144. Bederson J.B., Connolly E.S., Batjer H.H., et al. Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2009, 40(3):994-1025.
145. Bederson J.B., Connolly E.S., Batjer H.H., et al. Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a statement for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the Stroke Council, American Heart Association. Stroke 2009, 40(3):994-1025.
146. Choi K.-S., Chun H.-J., Yi H.-J., et al. Seizures and epilepsy following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: incidence and risk factors. J Korean Neurosurg Soc 2009, 46(2):93-98.
147. Pinto A., Canhão P., Ferro J. Seizures at the onset of subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol 1996, 243(2):161-164.
148. Claassen J., Hirsch L., Frontera J., et al. Prognostic significance of continuous EEG monitoring in patients with poor-grade subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2006, 4(2):103-112.
149. Naidech A., Levasseur K., Liebling S., et al. Moderate hypoglycemia is associated with vasospasm, cerebral infarction, and 3-month disability after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2010, 12(2):181-187.
150. Lee S.-H., Lim J.-S., Kim N., et al. Effects of admission glucose level on mortality after subarachnoid hemorrhage: a comparison between short-term and long-term mortality. J Neurol Sci 2008, 275(1-2):18-21.
151. Kruyt N.D., Biessels G.J., de Haan R.J., et al. Hyperglycemia and clinical outcome in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2009, 40(6):e424-e430.
152. Fernandez A., Schmidt J.M., Claassen J., et al. Fever after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 2007, 68(13):1013-1019.
153. Schmidt J.M., Wartenberg K.E., Fernandez A., et al. Frequency and clinical impact of asymptomatic cerebral infarction due to vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2008, 109(6):1052-1059.
154. Frontera J.A., Fernandez A., Schmidt J.M., et al. Defining vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2009, 40(6):1963-1968.
155. Washington C., Zipfel G., Participants in the International Multi-disciplinary Consensus Conference on the Critical Care Management of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Hemorrhage, detection and monitoring of vasospasm and delayed cerebral ischemia: a review and assessment of the literature. Neurocrit Care 2011, 15(2):312-317.
156. Rabinstein A.A., Lanzino G., Wijdicks E.F.M. Multidisciplinary management and emerging therapeutic strategies in aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. Lancet Neurol 2010, 9(5):504-519.
157. Treggiari M., Participants in the International Multi-disciplinary Consensus Conference on the Critical Care Management of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Hemorrhage, hemodynamic management of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2011, 15(2):329-335.
158. Lee K., Lukovits T., Friedman J. "Triple-H" therapy for cerebral vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2006, 4(1):68-76.
159. CARAT Investigators Rates of delayed rebleeding from intracranial aneurysms are low after surgical and endovascular treatment. Stroke 2006, 37(6):1437-1442.