Impaired Neurocognitive Functions Affect Social Learning Processes in Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder: Implications for Interventions

Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review

Volumn 15, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 234-246

  Matthys, Walter ^a,b   Vanderschuren, Louk J M J ^a,c   Schutter, Dennis J L G ^b   Lochman, John E ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER UTRECHT   (Netherlands)

^b UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^c UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA   (United States)

Author keywords

Conduct disorder; Neurocognitive dysfunctions; Oppositional defiant disorder; Social learning processes

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ATTENTION; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; CHILD; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CONDUCT DISORDER; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; HUMAN; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PROBLEM SOLVING; PUNISHMENT; REVIEW; REWARD; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIOPATHY;

ADOLESCENT; ATTENTION; ATTENTION DEFICIT AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR DISORDERS; CHILD; COGNITION DISORDERS; CONDUCT DISORDER; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; HUMANS; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); PROBLEM SOLVING; PUNISHMENT; REWARD; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR DISORDERS;

EID: 84865433241     PISSN: 10964037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10567-012-0118-7     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed., Text revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.
2. Angold, A., Costello, J. E., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57-87.
3. Balleine, B. W., & Killcross, S. (2006). Parallel incentive processing: An integral view of amygdala functioning. Trends in Neurosciences, 29, 272-279.
4. Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
5. Berridge, K. C. (2007). The debate over dopamine's role in reward: The case for incentive salience. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 191, 391-431.
6. Berridge, C. W., & Waterhouse, B. D. (2003). The locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system: Modulation of behavioral state and state-dependent cognitive processes. Brain Research Reviews, 42, 33-84.
7. Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behaviour. Brain and Cognition, 55, 198-208.
8. Blair, R. J. R. (2007). Dysfunctions of medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex in psychopathy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1121, 461-479.
9. Blair, R. J. R., Colledge, E., & Mitchell, D. G. V. (2001). Somatic markers and response reversal: Is there orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in boys with psychopathic tendencies? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 499-511.
10. Bromberg-Martin, E. S., Matsumoto, M., & Hikosaka, O. (2010). Dopamine in motivational control: Rewarding, aversive, and alerting. Neuron, 68, 815-834.
11. Bush, G., Luu, P., & Posner, M. I. (2000). Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulated cortex. Trends in Cognitive Science, 4, 215-222.
12. Carr, G. D., & White, N. M. (1984). The relationship between stereotypy and memory improvement produced by amphetamine. Psychopharmacology, 82, 203-209.
13. Cardinal, R. N., Parkinson, J. A., Hall, J., & Everitt, B. J. (2002). Emotion and motivation: The role of the amygdala, ventral striatum, and prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 26, 321-352.
14. Connor, D. F., Glatt, S., Lopez, I., Jackson, D., & Melloni, R. (2002). Psychopharmacology and Aggression. I A Meta analysis of stimulant effects on overt-covert aggression-related behaviors in ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 253-261.
15. Cools, R., Roberts, A. C., & Robbins, T. W. (2008). Serotoninergic regulation of emotional and behavioural control processes. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 31-40.
16. Dadds, M. R., & Salmon, K. (2003). Punishment insensitivity and parenting: Temperament and learning as interacting risks for antisocial behaviour. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 69-86.
17. Daugherty, T. K., & Quay, H. C. (1991). Response perseveration and delayed responding in childhood behavior disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 453-461.
18. Davis, M., & Whalen, P. J. (2001). The amygdala: Vigilance and emotion. Molecular Psychiatry, 6, 13-34.
19. De Brito, S. A., Mechelli, A., Wilke, M., Laurens, K. R., Jones, A. P., Barker, G. J., et al. (2009). Size matters: Increased grey matter in boys with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits. Brain, 132, 843-852.
20. Durston, S., Hulshoff Pol, H. E., Casey, B. J., Giedd, J. N., Buitelaar, J. K., & van Engeland, H. (2001). Anatomical MRI of the developing human brain: What have we learned? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 2149-2157.
21. Ellis, M. L., Weiss, B., & Lochman, J. E. (2009). Executive functions in children: Associations with aggressive behavior and social appraisal processing. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 945-956.
22. El-Sheikh, M., Ballard, M., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Individual differences in preschoolers' physiological and verbal responses to videotaped angry interactions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 303-320.
23. Ernst, M., & Fudge, J. L. (2009). A developmental neurobiological model of motivated behavior: Anatomy, connectivity and ontogeny of the triadic nodes. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33, 367-382.
24. Ernst, M., Grant, S. J., London, E. D., Contoreggi, C. S., Kimes, A. S., & Spurgeon, L. (2003). Decision making in adolescents with behaviour disorders and adults with substance abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 33-40.
25. Fairchild, G., Passamonti, L., Hurford, G., Hagan, C. C., von dem Hagen, E. A. H., van Goozen, S. H. M., et al. (2011). Brain structure abnormalities in early-onset and adolescent-onset conduct disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 624-633.
26. Fairchild, G., van Goozen, S. H. M., Stollery, S. J., Aitken, M. R. F., Savage, J., Moore, S. C., et al. (2009). Decision making and executive function in male adolescents with early-onset or adolescence-onset conduct disorder and control subjects. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 162-168.
27. Finger, E. C., Marsh, A. A., Blair, K. S., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Ng, P., et al. (2008a). Disrupted reinforcement signalling in the orbitofrontal cortex and caudate in youths with conduct disorder or oppositional defiant disorder and a high level of psychopathic traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 152-162.
28. Finger, E. C., Marsh, A. A., Mitchell, D. G., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Budhani, S., et al. (2008b). Abnormal ventromedial prefrontal cortex function in children with psychopathic traits during reversal learning. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 586-594.
29. Finger, E. C., Marsh, A. A., Blair, K. S., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Ng, P., et al. (2011). Disrupted reinforcement signaling in the orbitofrontal cortex and caudate in youths with conduct disorder or oppositional defiant disorder and a high level of psychopathic traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 152-162.
30. Fone, K. C., & Nutt, D. J. (2005). Stimulants: use and abuse in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 5, 87-93.
31. Fowles, D. C. (1980). The three arousal model: Implications of Gray's two-factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity, and psychopathy. Psychophysiology, 17, 87-104.
32. Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). Research review: The importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359-375.
33. Fung, M. T., Raine, A., Loeber, R., Lynam, D. R., Steinhauer, S. R., Venables, P. H., et al. (2005). Reduced electrodermal activity in psychopathy-prone adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 187-196.
34. Gao, Y., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dawson, M. E., & Mednick, S. A. (2010a). Reduced electrodermal fear conditioning from ages 3 to 8 years is associated with aggressive behaviour at age 8 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 550-558.
35. Gao, Y., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dawson, M. E., & Mednick, S. A. (2010b). Association of poor childhood fear conditioning and adult crime. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 56-60.
36. Ghuman, J. K., Riddle, M. A., Vitiello, B., Greenhill, L. L., Chuang, S. Z., Wigal, S. B., et al. (2007). Comorbidity moderates response to methylphenidate in the Preschoolers Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Treatment Study (PATS). Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 17, 563-579.
37. Greenhill, L., Kollins, S., Abikoff, H., McCracken, J., Riddle, M., Swanson, J., et al. (2006). Efficacy and safety of immediate-release methylphenidate treatment for preschoolers with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1284-1293.
38. Herpertz, S. C., Mueller, B., Qunaibi, M., Lichterveld, C., Konrad, K., & Herpertz-Dahlmann, B. (2005). Response to emotional stimuli in boys with conduct disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1100-1107.
39. Hitchcott, P. K., Harmer, C. J., & Phillips, G. D. (1997). Enhanced acquisition of discriminative approach following intra-amygdala d-amphetamine. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 132, 237-246.
40. Huebner, T., Vloet, T. D., Marx, I., Konrad, K., Fink, G. R., Herpertz, S. C., et al. (2008). Morphometric brain abnormalities in boys with conduct disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 540-547.
41. Jones, A. P., Laurens, K. R., Herba, C. J., & Viding, E. (2009). Amygdala hypoactivity to fearful faces in boys with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 95-102.
42. Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Parent management training. Treatment for oppositional, aggressive, and antisocial behaviour in children and adolescents. New York: Oxford University Press.
43. Kelley, A. E. (2004). Ventral striatal control of appetitive motivation: Role in ingestive behaviour and reward-related learning. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 765-776.
44. Killcross, A. S., Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (1997). Symmetrical effects of amphetamine and alpha-flupenthixol on conditioned punishment and conditioned reinforcement: Contrasts with midazolam. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 129, 141-152.
45. Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H., Milne, B. J., & Poulton, R. (2003). Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder: Developmental follow-back of a prospective-longitudinal cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 709-717.
46. Klein, R. G., Abikoff, H., Klass, E., Ganales, D., Seese, L. M., & Pollack, S. (1997). Clinical efficacy of methylphenidate in conduct disorder with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 1073-1080.
47. Kochanska, G. (1993). Toward a synthesis of parental socialization and child development in early development of conscience. Child Development, 64, 325-347.
48. Lahey, B. B., Miller, T. L., Gordon, R. A., & Riley, A. W. (1999). Developmental epidemiology of the disruptive behavior disorders. In H. C. Quay & A. E. Hogan (Eds.), Handbook of disruptive behaviour disorders (pp. 23-48). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
49. LeDoux, J. E. (2002). Synaptic self: How our brains become who we are. New York: Viking.
50. Lochman, J. E., Boxmeyer, C., Powell, N., Qu, L., Wells, K., & Windle, M. (2009). Dissemination of the coping power program: Importance of intensity of counselor training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 397-409.
51. Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2002). Contextual social-cognitive mediators and child outcome: A test of the theoretical model in the Coping Power Program. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 971-993.
52. Lochman, J. E., Wells, K. C., & Lenhart, L. A. (2008). Coping Power child group program: Facilitator guide. New York, NY: Oxford.
53. Luman, M., Sergeant, J. S., Knol, D., & Oosterlaan, J. (2010). Impaired decision making in oppositional defiant disorder related to altered psychophysiological responses to reinforcement. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 337-343.
54. Lykken, D. T. (1957). A study of anxiety in the sociopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55, 6-10.
55. Maren, S., & Quirk, G. J. (2004). Neuronal signalling of fear memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 844-852.
56. Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Mitchell, D. G. V., Reid, M., Sims, C., Kosson, D. S., et al. (2008). Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behaviour disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 712-720.
57. Matthys, W., & Lochman, J. E. (2010). Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder in childhood. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
58. Matthys, W., van Goozen, S., de Vries, H., Cohen-Kettenis, P., & van Engeland, H. (1998). The dominance of behavioural activation over behavioural inhibition in conduct disordered boys with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 643-651.
59. Matthys, W., van Goozen, S. H. M., Snoek, H., & van Engeland, H. (2004). Response perseveration and sensitivity to reward and punishment in boys with oppositional defiant disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13, 362-364.
60. Matthys, W., Vanderschuren, L. J. M. J., & Schutter, D. J. L. G. (2012). The neurobiology of Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder: Altered functioning in three mental domains. Development and Psychopathology (in press).
61. Maughan, B., & Rutter, M. (2001). Antisocial children grown up. In J. Hill & B. Maughan (Eds.), Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence (pp. 507-552). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
62. McCart, M. R., Priester, P. E., Davies, W. H., & Azen, R. (2006). Differential effectiveness of behavioral parent-training and cognitive-behavioral therapy for antisocial youth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 527-543.
63. Morgan, A. B., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2000). A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behavior and neuropsychological measures of executive function. Clinical Psychological Review, 20, 113-136.
64. Nigg, J. T. (2006). What causes ADHD? Understanding what goes wrong and why. New York: Guilford.
65. Nock, M. K., Kazdin, A. E., Hiripi, E., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). Lifetime prevalence, correlates, and persistence of oppositional defiant disorder: Results from the national Comorbidity Survey Replication. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 703-713.
66. O'Doherty, J. P., Buchanan, T. W., Seymour, B., & Dolan, R. J. (2006). Predictive neural coding of reward preference involves dissociable responses in human ventral midbrain and ventral striatum. Neuron, 49, 157-166.
67. Oosterlaan, J., Logan, G. D., & Sergeant, J. A. (1998). Response inhibition in AD/HD, CD, comorbid AD/HD + CD, anxious and normal children: A meta-analysis of studies with the stop task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 411-426.
68. Patterson, G. R. (2002). The early development of coercive family process. In J. B. Reid, G. R. Patterson, & J. Snyder (Eds.), Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model of intervention (pp. 25-64). Washington: American Psychological Association.
69. Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 51-87.
70. Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005). Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: From animal models to human behaviour. Neuron, 48, 175-187.
71. Phillips, G. D., Setzu, E., & Hitchcott, P. K. (2003). Facilitation of appetitive pavlovian conditioning by d-amphetamine in the shell, but not the core, of the nucleus accumbent. Behavioral Neuroscience, 117, 675-684.
72. Raaijmakers, M. A. J., Posthumus, J., van Hout, B., van Engeland, H., & Matthys, W. (2011). Cross-sectional study into the costs and impact on family functioning of 4-year old children with aggressive behaviour. Prevention Science, 12, 192-200.
73. Raaijmakers, M. A. J., Smidts, D. P., Sergeant, J. A., Maassen, G. H., Posthumus, J. A., van Engeland, H., et al. (2008). Executive functions in preschool children with aggressive behaviour: Impairments in inhibitory control. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 1097-1107.
74. Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. (2002). Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. A developmental analysis and model of intervention. Washington: American Psychological Association.
75. Robbins, T. W., & Everitt, B. J. (2007). A role for mesencephalic dopamine in activation: Commentary on Berridge (2006). Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 191, 433-437.
76. Robbins, T. W., Watson, B. A., Gaskin, M., & Ennis, C. (1983). Contrasting interactions of pipradrol, d-amphetamine, cocaine, cocaine analogues, apomorphine and other drugs with conditioned reinforcement. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 80, 113-119.
77. Rowe, R., Costello, E. J., Angold, A., Copeland, W., & Maughan, B. (2010). Developmental pathways in oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 726-738.
78. Rubia, K. (2011). 'Cool' inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus 'hot' ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: A review. Biological Psychiatry, 69, e69-e87.
79. Rubia, K., Halari, R., Cubillo, A., Smith, A., Mohammed, A.-M., Scott, S., et al. (2010). Disorder-specific inferior prefrontal hypofunction in boys with pure attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with pure conduct disorder during cognitive flexibility. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 1823-1833.
80. Rubia, K., Halari, R., Smith, A., Mohammed, M., Scott, S., & Brammer, M. J. (2009a). Shared and disorder-specific prefrontal abnormalities in boys with pure attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with pure CD during interference inhibition and attention allocation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 669-678.
81. Rubia, K., Halari, R., Smith, A., Mohammed, M., Scott, S., Giampetro, V., et al. (2008). Dissociated functional brain abnormalities of inhibition in boys with pure conduct disorder and in boys with pure attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 889-897.
82. Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Halari, R., Matsukara, F., Mohammad, M., Taylor, E., et al. (2009b). Disorder-specific dissociation of orbitofrontal dysfunction in boys with pure conduct disorder during reward and ventrolateral prefrontal dysfunction in boys with pure ADHD during sustained attention. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 83-94.
83. Schoemaker, K., Bunte, T., Wiebe, S. A., Espy, K. A., Dekovic, M., & Matthys, W. (2012). Executive function deficits in preschool children with ADHD and DBD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 111-119.
84. Schoenbaum, G., & Roesch, M. (2005). Orbitofrontal cortex, associative learning, and expectancies. Neuron, 47, 633-636.
85. Schultz, W. (2007). Multiple dopamine functions at different time courses. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 30, 259-288.
86. Schutter, D. J. L. G., van Bokhoven, I., Vanderschuren, L. J. M. J., Lochman, J. E., & Matthys, W. (2011). Risky decision making in substance dependent adolescents with a disruptive behaviour disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 333-339.
87. Scott, S., Knapp, M., Henderson, J., & Maughan, B. (2001). Financial costs of social exclusion: Follow-up study of antisocial children into adulthood. British Medical Journal, 323, 191-194.
88. Sijtsema, J. J., Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., van Roon, A. M., Verhulst, F. C., Ormel, J., et al. (2010). Mediation of sensation seeking and behavioral inhibition on the relationship between heart rate and antisocial behaviour: The TRAILS study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 493-502.
89. Snoek, H., van Goozen, S. H. M., Matthys, W., Buitelaar, J. K., & van Engeland, H. (2004). Stress responsivity in children with externalising behavior disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 389-406.
90. Stadler, C., Sterzer, P., Schmeck, K., Krebs, A., Kleinschmidt, A., & Poustka, F. (2007). Reduced anterior cingulate activation in aggressive children and adolescents during affective stimulation: Association with temperament traits. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 41, 410-417.
91. Sterzer, P., Stadler, C., Krebs, A., Kleinschmidt, A., & Poustka, F. (2005). Abnormal neural responses to emotional stimuli in adolescents with conduct disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 7-15.
92. Sterzer, P., Stadler, C., Poustka, F., & Kleinschmidt, A. (2007). A structural neural deficit in adolescents with conduct disorder and its association with lack of empathy. Neuroimage, 37, 335-342.
93. Stringaris, A., & Goodman, R. (2009a). Three dimensions of oppositionality in youth. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 216-223.
94. Stringaris, A., & Goodman, R. (2009b). Longitudinal outcome of youth oppositionality: Irritable, headstrong, and hurtful behaviours have distinctive predictions. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 404-412.
95. Swanson, J., Kraemer, H. C., Hinshaw, S. P., Arnold, L. E., Conners, C. K., Abikoff, H. B., et al. (2001). Clinical relevance of the primary findings of the MTA: Success rates based on severity of ADHD and ODD symptoms at the end of the treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 168-179.
96. Taylor, E., Schachar, R., Thorley, G., Wieselberg, H. M., Everitt, B., & Rutter, M. (1987). Which boys respond to stimulant medication? A controlled trial of methylphenidate in boys with disruptive behaviour. Psychological Medicine, 17, 121-143.
97. Tye, K. M., Tye, L. D., Cone, J. J., Hekkelman, E. F., Janak, P. H., & Bonci, A. (2010). Methylphenidate facilitates learning-induced amygdala plasticity. Nature Neuroscience, 13, 475-481.
98. van Goozen, S. H. M., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Snoek, H., Matthys, W., Swaab-Barneveld, H., & van Engeland, H. (2004). Executive functioning in children: A comparison of hospitalized ODD and ODD/ADHD children and normal controls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 284-292.
99. van Goozen, S. H. M., Matthys, W., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Buitelaar, J. K., & van Engeland, H. (2000). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and autonomic nervous system activity in disruptive children and matched controls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1438-1445.
100. van Goozen, S. H. M., Matthys, W., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Gispen-de Wied, C., Wiegant, V. M., & van Engeland, H. (1998). Salivary cortisol and cardiovascular activity during stress in oppositional-defiant disorder boys and normal controls. Biological Psychiatry, 43, 531-539.
101. van Honk, J., Harmon-Jones, E., Morgan, B. E., & Schutter, D. J. L. G. (2010). Social explosive minds: The triple imbalance hypothesis of reactive aggression. Journal of Personality, 78, 67-94.
102. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Telang, F., Maynard, L., Logan, J., et al. (2004). Evidence that methylphenidate enhances saliency of a mathematical task by increasing dopamine in the human brain. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1173-1180.
103. Webster-Stratton, C. (2001). The incredible years: Parents and children videotape series: A parenting course (BASIC). Seattle, WA: Incredible Years.
104. Wells, K. C., Lochman, J. E., & Lenhart, L. A. (2008). Coping power parent group program: Workbook. New York, NY: Oxford.
105. Wyvell, C. L., & Berridge, K. C. (2000). Intra-accumbens amphetamine increases the conditioned incentive salience of sucrose reward: Enhancement of reward "wanting" without enhanced "liking" or response reinforcement. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 8122-8130.