A review of micromodels and their use in two-phase flow studies

Vadose Zone Journal

Volumn 11, Issue 3, 2012, Pages

  Karadimitriou, N K ^a   Hassanizadeh, S M ^b  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b DELTARES   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY; FABRICATION METHOD; FLOW AND TRANSPORT; FRACTAL PATTERNS; GLASS BEAD; HELE-SHAW; INTERFACIAL AREAS; MICROMODELS; PHASE SATURATIONS; PHYSICAL APPLICATION; PORE SPACE; REGULAR PATTERNS; RELATIVE PERMEABILITY; SOFT-LITHOGRAPHY; TWO-PHASE DISPLACEMENTS;

ENHANCED RECOVERY; PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY; PLASMA ETCHING; POROUS MATERIALS;

TWO PHASE FLOW;

LITERATURE REVIEW; MEASUREMENT METHOD; MICROSTRUCTURE; NUMERICAL MODEL; PERMEABILITY; POROUS MEDIUM; RESEARCH WORK; SATURATION; TWO PHASE FLOW; VISUALIZATION;

EID: 84865245898     PISSN: None     EISSN: 15391663     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2136/vzj2011.0072     Document Type: Review

References (190)

1. Amani, H., M.H. Sarrafzadeh, M. Haghighi, and M.R. Mehrnia. 2010. Comparative study of biosurfactant producing bacteria in MEOR applications. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 75:209-214. doi:10.1016/j.petrol.2010.11.008
2. Armstrong, R.T., and D. Wildenschild. 2010. Designer-wet micromodels for studying potential changes in wettability during microbial enhanced oil recovery. Poster presented at: American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting, San Francisco. 13-17 Dec. 2010. Abstr. H53D-1061.
3. Armstrong, R.T., and D. Wildenschild. 2012. Microbial enhanced oil recovery in fractional-wet systems: A pore-scale investigation. Transp. Porous Media 92:819-835. doi:10.1007/s11242-011-9934-3
4. Arnold, J., U. Dasbach, W. Ehrfeld, K. Hesch, and H. Löwe. 1995. Combination of excimer laser micromachining and replication processes suited for large scale production. Appl. Surf. Sci. 86:251-258. doi:10.1016/0169-4332(94)00386-6
5. Auset, M., and A.A. Keller. 2004. Pore-scale processes that control dispersion of colloids in saturated porous media. Water Resour. Res. 40:W03503. doi:10.1029/2003WR002800
6. Avraam, D.G., G.B. Kolonis, T.C. Roumeliotis, G.N. Constantinides, and A.C. Payatakes. 1994. Steady-state two-phase flow through planar and nonplanar model porous media. Transp. Porous Media 16:75-101. doi:10.1007/BF01059777
7. Avraam, D.G., and A.C. Payatakes. 1999. Flow mechanisms, relative permeabilities, and coupling effects in steady-state two-phase flow through porous media: The case of strong wettability. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 38:778-786. doi:10.1021/ie980404o
8. Baouab, Z., M. Najjari, H. Ouerfelli, and S. Ben Nasrallah. 2007. Experimental study of the effects of hydraulic gradient and injected-gas flow rate on fragmentation in porous media. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 59:250-256. doi:10.1016/j.petrol.2007.04.009
9. Basov, N.G., V.A. Danilychev, Y.M. Popov, and D.D. Khodkevich. 1970. Laser operating in the vacuum region of the spectrum by excitation of liquid Xe by an electron beam. JETP Lett. 12:329.
10. Baumann, T. 2007. Colloid transport processes: Experimental evidence from the pore scale to the field scale. In: F.H. Frimmel et al., editors, Colloidal transport in porous media. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. p. 55-86.
11. Baumann, T., and R. Niessner. 2006. Micromodel study on repartitioning phenomena of a strongly hydrophobic fluorophore at a colloid/1-octanol interface. Water Resour. Res. 42:W12S04. doi:10.1029/2006WR004893
12. Baumann, T., and C.J. Werth. 2004. Visualization and modeling of polystyrol colloid transport in a silicon micromodel. Vadose Zone J. 3:434-443. doi:10.2136/vzj2004.0434
13. Baumann, T., C.J. Werth, and R. Niessner. 2002. Visualisation of colloid transport processes with magnetic resonance imaging and in etched silicon micromodels. DIAS Rep. Plant Prod. 80:25-30.
14. Berejnov, V., N. Djilali, and D. Sinton. 2008. Lab-on-chip methodologies for the study of transport in porous media: Energy applications. Lab Chip 8:689-693. doi:10.1039/b802373p
15. Blauw, M.A., T. Zijilstr, and E. van der Drift. 2001. Balancing the etching and passivation in time-multiplexed deep dry etching of silicon. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 19:2930-2934. doi:10.1116/1.1415511
16. Blunt, M., and P. King. 1991. Relative permeabilities from two- and three-dimensional pore-scale network modelling. Transp. Porous Media 6:407-433. doi:10.1007/BF00136349
17. Bonnet, J., and R. Lenormand. 1977. Realisation de micromodeles pour l'etude des ecoluments polyphasiques en milieu poreux. Rev. Inst. Fr. Pet. 42:477-480.
18. Bora, R., B.B. Maini, and A. Chakma. 1997. Flow visualization studies of solution gas drive process in heavy oil reservoirs using a glass micromodel. Paper presented at: SPE International Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil Symposium, Bakersfield, CA. 10-12 Feb. 1997. Paper 37519-MS.
19. Bottero, S. 2009. Advances in the theory of capillarity in porous media. Ph.D. diss. Utrecht Univ., Utrecht, the Netherlands.
20. Buckley, J.S. 1990. Multiphase displacements in micromodels. In: N.R. Morrow, editor, Interfacial phenomena in oil recovery. Marcel Dekker, New York. p. 157-189.
21. Budwig, R. 1994. Refractive index matching methods for liquid flow investigations. Exp. Fluids 17:350-355. doi:10.1007/BF01874416
22. Chang, L.-C., Z.H.-H. Chen, and H.-Y. Shan. 2009a. Effect of connectivity and wettability on the relative permeability of NAPLs. Environ. Geol. 56:1437-1447. doi:10.1007/s00254-008-1238-8
23. Chang, L.-C., J.-P. Tsai, H.-Y. Shan, and H.-H. Chen. 2009b. Experimental study on imbibition displacement mechanisms of two-phase fluid using micro model. Environ. EarThSci. 59:901-911. doi:10.1007/s12665-009-0085-6
24. Chatenever, A., and J.C. Calhoun, Jr. 1952. Visual examinations of fluid behavior in porous media: Part 1. J. Pet. Technol. 4:149-156. doi:10.2118/135-G
25. Chen, D., L.J. Pyrak-Nolte, J. Griffin, and N.J. Giordano. 2007. Measurement of interfacial area per volume for drainage and imbibitions. Water Resour. Res. 43:W12504. doi:10.1029/2007WR006021
26. Chen, J.-D., and D. Wilkinson. 1985. Pore-scale viscous fingering in porous media. Phys. Rev. Lett. 55:1892-1895. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.55.1892
27. Cheng, J.-T. 2002. Fluid flow in ultra-small capillaries. Ph.D. diss. Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN.
28. Cheng, J.-T., and N.J. Giordano. 2002. Fluid flow through nanometer-scale channels. Phys. Rev. E 65:031206. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.65.031206
29. Cheng, J.-T., L.J. Pyrak-Nolte, D.D. Nolte, and N.J. Giordano. 2004. Linking pressure and saturation through interfacial areas in porous media. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31:L08502. doi:10.1029/2003GL019282
30. Chuoke, R.L., P. van Meurs, and C. van der Poel. 1959. The instability of slow, immiscible, viscous liquid-liquid displacements in permeable media. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Metall. Pet. Eng. 216:188-194.
31. Conrad, S.H., J.L. Wilson, W.R. Mason, and W.J. Peplinski. 1992. Visualization of residual organic liquids trapped in aquifers. Water Resour. Res. 28:467-478. doi:10.1029/91WR02054
32. Corapcioglu, M.Y., S. Chowdhury, and S.E. Roosevelt. 1997. Micromodel visualization and quantification of solute transport in porous media. Water Resour. Res. 33:2547-2558. doi:10.1029/97WR02115
33. Corapcioglu, M.Y., and P. Fedirchuk. 1999. Glass bead micromodel study of solute transport. J. Contam. Hydrol. 36:209-230. doi:10.1016/S0169-7722(98)00145-4
34. Corapcioglu, M.Y., S. Yoon, and S. Chowdhury. 2009. Pore-scale analysis of NAPL blob dissolution and mobilization in porous media. Transp. Porous Media 79:419-442. doi:10.1007/s11242-008-9331-8
35. Coskuner, G. 1997. Microvisual study of multiphase gas condensate flow in porous media. Transp. Porous Media 28:1-18. doi:10.1023/A:1006505706431
36. Cottin, C., H. Bodiguel, and A. Colin. 2010. Drainage in two-dimensional porous media: From capillary to viscous flow. Phys. Rev. E 82:046315. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.82.046315
37. Cottin, C., H. Bodiguel, and A. Colin. 2011. Influence of wetting conditions on drainage in porous media: A microfluidic study. Phys. Rev. E 84:026311. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.84.026311
38. Crandall, D., G. Ahmadi, M. Ferer, and D.H. Smith. 2009. Distribution and occurrence of localized-bursts in two-phase flow through porous media. Physica A 388:574-584. doi:10.1016/j.physa.2008.11.010
39. Crandall, D., G. Ahmadi, D. Leonard, M. Ferer, and D.H. Smith. 2008. A new stereolithography experimental porous flow device. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 79:044501. doi:10.1063/1.2903740
40. Crandall, D., G. Ahmadi, D.H. Smith, and G. Bromhal. 2010. Direct, dynamic measurement of interfacial area within porous media. In: 7ThInternational Conference on Multiphase Flow: ICMF 2010 Proceedings, Tampa, FL. 30 May_4 June 2010. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville. Paper 10.3.2.
41. Dawe, R.A., A. Caruana, and C.A. Grattoni. 2010. Microscale visual study of end effects at permeability discontinuities. Transp. Porous Media 86:601-616. doi:10.1007/s11242-010-9642-4
42. Dawe, R.A., A. Caruana, and C.A. Grattoni. 2011. Immiscible displacement in cross-bedded heterogeneous porous media. Transp. Porous Media 87:335-353. doi:10.1007/s11242-010-9687-4
43. Devasenathipathy, S., J.G. Santiago, and K. Takehara. 2002. Particle tracking techniques for electrokinetic microchannel flows. Anal. Chem. 74:3704-3713. doi:10.1021/ac011243s
44. Devasenathipathy, S., J.G. Santiago, S.T. Wereley, C.D. Meinhart, and K. Takehara. 2003. Particle imaging techniques for microfabricated fluidic systems. Exp. Fluids 34:504-514.
45. de Zélicourt, D., K. Pekkan, H. Kitajima, D. Frakes, and A.P. Yoganathan. 2005. Single- step stereolithography of complex anatomical models for optical flow measurements. J. Biomech. Eng. 127:204-207. doi:10.1115/1.1835367
46. Dong, M., and I. Chatzis. 2010. Effect of capillary pressure on wetting film imbibition ahead of main liquid-gas displacement front in porous media. Pet. Sci. Technol. 28:955-968. doi:10.1080/10916460902937067
47. Dong, M., Q. Liu, and A. Li. 2007. Micromodel Study of the displacement mechanisms of enhanced oil recovery by alkaline flooding. Paper presented at: International Symposium of the Society of Core Analysts, Calgary, AB, Canada. 10-12 Sept. 2007. Paper SCA 2007-47.
48. Doorwar, S., and K.K. Mohanty. 2011. Viscous fingering during non-thermal heavy oil recovery. Paper presented at: SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, CO. 30 Oct.-2 Nov. 2011. Paper 146841-MS.
49. Durandet, A., O. Joubert, J. Pelletier, and M. Pichot. 1990. Effects of ion bombardment chemical reaction on wafer temperature during plasma etching. J. Appl. Phys. 67:3862-3866. doi:10.1063/1.345009
50. Ehrfeld, W., M. Abraham, U. Ehrfeld, M. Lacher, and H. Lehr. 1994. Materials for LIGA products. In: MEMS '94: Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, Kanagawa, Japan. 25-28 Jan. 1994. IEEE, New York. p. 86-90.
51. Ehrfeld, W., P. Bley, F. Goetz, P. Hagmann, A. Maner, J. Mohr, et al. 1987. Fabrication of microstructures using the LIGA process. In: K.J. Gabriel and W.S.N. Trimmer, editors, Proceedings of the IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, Hyannis, MA. 9-11 Nov. 1987. IEEE, Piscataway, NJ. Paper TH02404-8.
52. Ehrfeld, W., H. Lehr, F. Michel, A. Wolf, H.-P. Gruber, and A. Bertholds. 1996. Microelectro discharge machining as a technology on micromachining. Proc. SPIE 2879:332-337. doi:10.1117/12.251221
53. Feng, Q.-x., L.-c. Di, G.-q. Tang, Z.-y. Chen, X.-l. Wang, and J.-x. Zou. 2004. A visual micro-model study: The mechanism of water alternative gas displacement in porous media. Paper presented at: SPE/DOE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, Tulsa, OK. 17-21 April 2004. Paper 89362-MS. doi:10.2118/89362-MS
54. Ferer, M., C. Ji, G.S. Bromhal, J. Cook, G. Ahmadi, and D.H. Smith. 2004. Crossover from capillary fingering to viscous fingering for immiscible unstable flow: Experiment and modeling. Phys. Rev. E 70:016303. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.70.016303
55. Fernández Rivas, D., M.N. Kashid, D.W. Agar, and S. Turek. 2008. Slug flow capillary microreactor: Hydrodynamic study. Afr. Phys. Rev. 1(Spec. Iss.):0005.
56. Frette, O.I., K.J. Maloy, and J. Schmittbuhl. 1997. Immiscible displacement of viscosity matched fluids in two dimensional porous media. Phys. Rev. E 55:2969-2975. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.55.2969
57. Fritz, J.L., and M.J. Owen. 1995. Hydrophobic recovery of plasma-treated polydimethylsiloxane. J. Adhes. 54:33-45. doi:10.1080/00218469508014379
58. Gervais, T., J. El-Ali, A. Günther, and K.F. Jensen. 2006. Flow-induced deformation of shallow microfluidic channels. Lab Chip 6:500-507. doi:10.1039/b513524a
59. Giordano, N., and J.-T. Cheng. 2001. Microfluid mechanics: Progress and opportunities. J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 13:R271. doi:10.1088/0953-8984/13/15/201
60. Grate, J.W., C. Zhang, T.W. Wietsma, M.G. Warner, N.C. Anheier Jr., B.E. Bernacki, et al. 2010. A note on the visualization of wetting film structures and a nonwetting immiscible fluid in a pore network micromodel using a solvatochromic dye. Water Resour. Res. 46:W11602. doi:10.1029/2010WR009419
61. Gutiérrez, B., F. Juarez, L. Ornelas, S. Zeppieri, and A. López de Ramos. 2008. Experimental study of gas-liquid two-phase flow in glass micromodels. Int. J. Thermophys. 29:2126-2135. doi:10.1007/s10765-007-0305-9
62. Hassanizadeh, S.M., and W.G. Gray. 1990. Mechanics and thermodynamics of multiphase flow in porous media including interphase boundaries. Adv. Water Resour. 13:169-186. doi:10.1016/0309-1708(90)90040-B
63. Hassanizadeh, S.M., and W.G. Gray. 1993a. Thermodynamic basis of capillary pressure in porous media. Water Resour. Res. 29:3389-3405. doi:10.1029/93WR01495
64. Hassanizadeh, S.M., and W.G. Gray. 1993b. Toward an improved description of the physics of two-phase flow. Adv. Water Resour. 16:53-67. doi:10.1016/0309-1708(93)90029-F
65. Hedlund, C., H.O. Blom, and S. Berg. 1994. Microloading effect in reactive ion etching. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 12:1962-1965. doi:10.1116/1.578990
66. Heiba, A.A., M. Sahimi, L.E. Scriven, and H.T. Davis. 1992. Percolation theory of twophase relative permeability. SPE Reservoir Eng. 7:123-132. doi:10.2118/11015-PA
67. Hell, S.H., E.H.K. Stelzer, S. Lindek, and C. Cremer. 1994. Confocal microscopy with an increased detection aperture: Type-B 4Pi confocal microscopy. Opt. Lett. 19:222-224. doi:10.1364/OL.19.000222
68. Hematpour, H., M. Mardi, S. Edalatkhah, and R. Arabjamaloei. 2011. Experimental study of polymer flooding in low-viscosity oil using one-quarter five-spot glass micromodel. Pet. Sci. Technol. 29:1163-1175. doi:10.1080/10916460903514964
69. Hollman, R., and W.A. Little. 1981. Progress in the development of microminiature refrigerators using photolithographic fabrication techniques. In: J.E. Zimmerman et al., editors, Refrigeration for cryogenic sensors and electronic systems: Proceedings of a conference held at the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, CO. 6-7 Oct. 1980. Natl. Bur. Standards Spec. Publ. 607. U.S. Gov. Print. Office, Washington, DC. p. 160-163.
70. Hornbrook, J.W., L.M. Castanier, and P.A. Pettit. 1991. Observation of foam/oil interactions in a new, high-resolution micromodel. Paper presented at: SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, TX. 6-9 Oct. 1991. Paper 22631-MS.
71. Hug, T.S., D. Parrat, P.-A. Kunzi, U. Staufer, E. Verpoorte, and N.F. de Rooij. 2003. Fabrication of nanochannels with PDMS, silicon and glass walls and spontaneous filling by capillary forces. In: M.A. Northrup et al., editors, 7ThInternational Conference on Miniaturized Chemical and Biochemical Analysis Systems, Squaw Valley, CA. 5-9 Oct. 2003. Vol. 1. Transducers Res. Foundation, San Diego. p. 29-32.
72. Huh, D., K.L. Mills, X. Zhu, M.A. Burns, M.A. Thouless, and S. Takayama. 2007. Tuneable elastomeric nanochannels for nanofluidic manipulation. Nat. Mater. 6:424-428. doi:10.1038/nmat1907
73. Hull, C. 1986. Apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereolithography. U.S. Patent 4,575,330. Date issued: 11 Mar. 1986.
74. Iliescu, C., B. Chen, and J. Miao. 2008. On the wet etching of Pyrex glass. Sens. Actuators A 143:154-161. doi:10.1016/j.sna.2007.11.022
75. Jeong, S.W., and M.Y. Corapcioglu. 2003. A micromodel analysis of factors influencing NAPL removal by surfactant foam flooding. J. Contam. Hydrol. 60:77-96. doi:10.1016/S0169-7722(02)00054-2
76. Jeong, S.W., and M.Y. Corapcioglu. 2005. Force analysis and visualization of NAPL removal during surfactant-related floods in a porous medium. J. Hazard. Mater. 126:8-13. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2005.06.015
77. Jeong, S.W., M.Y. Corapcioglu, and S.E. Roosevelt. 2000. Micromodel study of surfactant foam remediation of residual trichloroethylene. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34:3456-3461. doi:10.1021/es9910558
78. Johnston, W.G. 1962. Dislocation etch pits in non-metallic crystals with bibliography. In: J.E. Burke, editor, Progress in ceramic science. Vol. 2. Pergamon Press, New York. p. 1-75.
79. Kalaydjian, F. 1990. Origin and quantification of coupling between relative permeabilities for two-phase flows in porous media. Transp. Porous Media 5:215-229. doi:10.1007/BF00140013
80. Keane, R.D., and R.J. Andrian. 1992. Theory of cross-correlation analysis of PIV images. Appl. Sci. Res. 49:191-215. doi:10.1007/BF00384623
81. Keller, A.A., and M. Auset. 2007. A review of visualization techniques of biocolloid transport processes at the pore scale under saturated and unsaturated conditions. Adv. Water Resour. 30:1392-1407. doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2006.05.013
82. Keller, A.A., M.J. Blunt, and P.V. Roberts. 1997. Micromodel observation of the role of oil layers in three-phase flow. Transp. Porous Media 26:277-297. doi:10.1023/A:1006589611884
83. Kim, E., Y. Xia, and G.M. Whitesides. 1996. Micromolding in capillaries: Applications in materials science. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118:5722-5731. doi:10.1021/ja960151v
84. King, E., Y. Xia, X.-M. Zhao, and G.M. Whitesides. 1997. Solvent-assisted microcontact molding: A convenient method for fabricating three-dimensional structures on surfaces of polymers. Adv. Mater. 9:651-654. doi:10.1002/adma.19970090814
85. Kolari, K., V. Saarela, and S. Franssila. 2008. Deep plasma etching of glass for fluidic devices with different mask materials. J. Micromech. Microeng. 18:064010. doi:10.1088/0960-1317/18/6/064010
86. Lago, M., M. Huerta, and R. Gomes. 2002. Visualization study during depletion experiments of Venezuelan heavy oils using glass micromodels. J. Can. Pet. Technol. 41(1):02-01-03. doi:10.2118/02-01-03
87. Lanning, L.M., and R.M. Ford. 2002. Glass micromodel study of bacterial dispersion in spatially periodic porous networks. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 78:556-566. doi:10.1002/bit.10236
88. Lenormand, R. 1989a. Flow through porous media: Limits of fractal patterns. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. A 423:159-168. doi:10.1098/rspa.1989.0048
89. Lenormand, R. 1989b. Application of fractal concepts in petroleum engineering. Physica D 38:230-234. doi:10.1016/0167-2789(89)90198-X
90. Lenormand, R., E. Touboul, and C. Zarcone. 1988. Numerical models and experiments on immiscible displacements in porous media. J. Fluid Mech. 189:165-187. doi:10.1017/S0022112088000953
91. Lenormand, R., and C. Zarcone. 1985a. Invasion percolation in an etched network: Measurement of a fractal dimension. Phys. Rev. Lett. 54:2226. doi:10.1103/Phys-RevLett.54.2226
92. Lenormand, R., and C. Zarcone. 1985b. Two-phase flow experiments in a two-dimensional permeable medium. Physicochem. Hydrodyn. 6:497-506.
93. Lenormand, R., C. Zarcone, and A. Sarr. 1983. Mechanisms of the displacement of one fluid by another in a network of capillary ducts. J. Fluid Mech. 135:337-353. doi:10.1017/S0022112083003110
94. Lindek, S., C. Cremer, and E.H.K. Stelzer. 1996. Confocal theta fluorescence microscopy with annular apertures. Appl. Opt. 35:126-130. doi:10.1364/AO.35.000126
95. Lindken, R., M. Rossi, S. Grosse, and J. Westerweel. 2009. Micro-particle image velocimetry (microPIV): Recent developments, applications, and guidelines. Lab Chip 9:2551-2567. doi:10.1039/b906558j
96. Little, W.A. 1982. Microminiature refrigeration-small is better. Physica B+C 109-110:2001-2009. doi:10.1016/0378-4363(82)90564-2
97. Liu, Q. 2006. Interfacial phenomena in enhanced heavy oil recovery by alkaline flood. Ph.D. diss. Univ. of Regina, Regina, SK, Canada.
98. Liu, Y., D.D. Nolte, and L.J. Pyrak-Nolte. 2011. Hysteresis and interfacial energies in smooth-walled microfluidic channels. Water Resour. Res. 47:W01504. doi:10.1029/2010WR009541
99. Liu, Z., X. Yue, J. Hou, and L. Zhang. 2002. Comparison of displacement oil mechanism of polymer, ASP and foam of ASP in micro pores and dead ends of pores. Paper presented at: SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Melbourne, Australia. 8-10 Oct. 2002. Paper 77876-MS.
100. Lovoll, G., M. Jankov, K.J. Maloy, R. Toussaint, J. Schmittbuhl, G. Schafer, and Y. Meheust. 2010. Influence of viscous fingering on dynamic saturation-pressure curves in porous media. Transp. Porous Media 86:335-354.
101. Lovoll, G., Y. Meheust, K.J. Maløy, E. Aker, and J. Schmittbuhl. 2005. Competition of gravity, capillary and viscous forces during drainage in a two-dimensional porous medium: A pore scale study. Energy 30:861-872. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2004.03.100
102. Mahers, E.G., and R.A. Dawe. 1985. Visualisation of microscopic displacement processes within porous media in EOR capillary pressure effects. In: 3rd European Meeting on Improved Oil Recovery, Rome. 16-18 Apr. 1985. Vol. 1. p. 40-58.
103. Markov, D.A., P.C. Samson, D.K. Schaffer, A. Dhummakupt, J.P. Wikswo, and L.M. Shor. 2010. Window on a microworld: Simple microfluidic systems for studying microbial transport in porous media. J. Vis. Exp. 39:e1741. doi:10.3791/1741
104. Marle, C.-M. 1981. From the pore scale to the macroscopic scale: Equations governing multiphase fluid flow through porous media. In: A. Verruijt and F.B.J. Barends, editors, Flow and Transport in Porous Media: Proceedings of Euromech 143, Delft, the Netherlands. 2-4 Sept. 1981. Taylor & Francis, Oxford, UK. p. 57-61.
105. Marle, C.M. 1982. On macroscopic equations governing multiphase flow with diffusion and chemical reactions in porous media. Int. J. Eng. Sci. 20:643-662. doi:10.1016/0020-7225(82)90118-5
106. Mattax, C.C., and J.R. Kyte. 1961. Ever see a water flood? Oil Gas J. 59:115-128.
107. McKellar, M., and N.C. Wardlaw. 1982. A method of making two-dimensional glass micromodels of pore systems. J. Can. Pet. Technol. 21(4):82-04-03. doi:10.2118/82-04-03
108. Meinhart, C.D., S.T. Wereley, and J.G. Santiago. 1999. PIV measurements of a microchannel flow. Exp. Fluids 27:414-419. doi:10.1007/s003480050366
109. Melchels, F.P.W., J. Feijen, and D.W. Grijpma. 2010. A review on stereolithography and its applications in biomedical engineering. Biomaterials 31:6121-6130. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.04.050
110. Minsky, M. 1988. Memoir on inventing the confocal scanning microscope. Scanning 10:128-138.
111. Montemagno, C.D., and W.G. Gray. 1995. Photoluminescent volumetric imaging: A technique for the exploration of multiphase flow and transport in porous media. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22:425-428. doi:10.1029/94GL02697
112. Murakami, S.-I., T. Kuroda, and Z. Osawa. 1998. Dynamics of polymeric solid surfaces treated with oxygen plasma: Effect of aging media aft er plasma treatment. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 202:37-44. doi:10.1006/jcis.1997.5386
113. Naderi, K., and T. Babadagli. 2011. Visual analysis of immiscible displacement processes in porous media under ultrasound effect. Phys. Rev. E 83:056323. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.83.056323
114. Nguyen, Q.P., M.H.G. Thissen, and P.L.J. Zitha. 2002. Effect of trapped foam on gas tracer diffusion in a visual microflow model. Paper presented at: SPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, OK. 13-17 April 2002. Paper 75208-MS. doi:10.2118/75208-MS
115. Nolte, D.D., and L.J. Pyrak-Nolte. 1991. Stratified continuum percolation: Scaling geometry of hierarchical cascades. Phys. Rev. A 44:6320-6333. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.44.6320
116. Nolte, D.D., L.J. Pyrak-Nolte, and N.G.W. Cook. 1989. The fractal geometry of flow paths in natural fractures in rock and the approach to percolation. Pure Appl. Geophys. 131:111-138. doi:10.1007/BF00874483
117. Nourani, M., H. Panahi, D. Biria, R. Roosta Azad, M. Haghighi, and A. Mohebbi. 2007. Laboratory Studies of MEOR in Micromodel as a Fractured System. Paper presented at: Eastern Regional Meeting, Lexington, KY. 17-19 Oct. 2007. Paper 110988-MS. doi:10.2118/110988-MS
118. Nuss, W.F., and R.L. Whiting. 1947. Technique for reproducing rock pore space [in oil sands]. AAPG Bull. 31:2044-2049.
119. Ohara, J., K. Asami, Y. Takeuchi, and K. Sato. 2010. Development of RIE-lag reduction technique for Si deep etching using double protection layer method. IEEJ Trans. Electr. and Electron. Eng. 5:125-130. doi:10.1002/tee.20506
120. Okuda, R., Y. Sugii, and K. Okamoto. 2003. Velocity measurement of blood flow in a microtube using micro PIV system. In: Proceedings of the 4ThPacific Symposium on Flow Visualization and Image Processing, Chamonix, France. Univ. de Franche-Comte. 3-5 June 2003. Paper F4804.
121. Oren, P.E., J. Billiotte, and W.V. Pinczewski. 1992. Mobilization of waterflood residual oil by gas injection for water-wet conditions. SPE Form. Eval. 7:70-78. doi:10.2118/20185-PA
122. Park, S.-m., Y.S. Huh, H.G. Craighead, and D. Erickson. 2009. A method for nanofl uidic device prototyping using elastomeric collapse. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.106:15549-15554. doi:10.1073/pnas.0904004106
123. Paulsen, J.E., E. Oppen, and R. Bakke. 1998. Biofilm morphology in porous media: A study with microscopic and image techniques. Water Sci. Technol. 36:1-8. doi:10.1016/S0273-1223(97)00317-X
124. Perrin, C.L., K.S. Sorbie, and P.M.J. Tardy. 2005. Micro-PIV: A new technology for pore scale flow characterization in micromodels. Paper presented at: SPE Europec/EAGE Annual Conference, Madrid, Spain. 13-16 June 2005. Paper 94078-MS. doi:10.2118/94078-MS.
125. Pyrak-Nolte, L.J., N.G.W. Cook, and D.D. Nolte. 1988. Fluid percolation through single fractures. Geophys. Res. Lett. 15:1247-1250. doi:10.1029/GL015i011p01247
126. Pyrak-Nolte, L.J., D.D. Nolte, D. Chen, and N.J. Giordano. 2008. Relating capillary pressure to interfacial areas. Water Resour. Res. 44:W06408. doi:10.1029/2007WR006434
127. Quake, S.R., and A. Scherer. 2000. From micro- to nanofabrication with soft materials. Science 290:1536-1540. doi:10.1126/science.290.5496.1536
128. Rangel-German, E.R., and A.R. Kovscek. 2006. A micromodel investigation of two-phase matrix-fracture transfer mechanisms. Water Resour. Res. 42:W03401. doi:10.1029/2004WR003918
129. Rapoport, L.A., and W.J. Leas. 1951. Relative permeability to liquid in liquid-gas systems. J. Pet. Technol. 3:83-98.
130. Rogers, J.A., and R.G. Nuzzo. 2005. Recent progress in soft lithography. Mater. Today 8:50-56. doi:10.1016/S1369-7021(05)00702-9
131. Romano, M., M. Chabert, A. Cuenca, and H. Bodiguel. 2011. Strong influence of geometrical heterogeneity on drainage in porous media. Phys. Rev. E 84:065302(R). doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.84.065302
132. Romero, C., J.M. Alvarez, and A.J. Muller. 2002. Micromodel studies of polymerenhanced foam flow through porous media. Paper presented at the SPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, OK. 13-17 Apr. 2002. Paper 75179-MS. doi:10.2118/75179-MS
133. Sagar, N.S., and L.M. Castanier. 1998. Pore-level visualization of oil-foam interactions in a silicon micromodel. In: Proceedings of the 11ThSPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, OK. 19-22 Apr. 1998. Paper SPE 39512. Soc. Pet. Eng., Richardson, TX.
134. Sandnes, B., H.A. Knudsen, K.J. Måløy, and E.G. Flekkøy. 2007. LabyrinThpatterns in confined granular-fluid systems. Phys. Rev. Lett. 99(3):038001. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.038001
135. Sato, Y., G. Irisawa, M. Ishizuka, K. Hishida, and M. Maeda. 2003. Visualization of convective mixing in microchannel by fluorescence imaging. Meas. Sci. Technol. 14:114-121. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/14/1/317
136. Sayegh, S.G., and D.B. Fisher. 2008. Enhanced oil recovery by CO2 flooding in homogeneous and heterogeneous 2D micromodels. Paper presented at: Canadian International Petroleum Conference, Calgary, AB. 17-19 June 2008. Paper 2008-005. doi:10.2118/2008-005.
137. Sbragaglia, M., R. Benzi, L. Biferale, S. Succi, K. Sugiyama, and F. Toschi. 2007. Generalized lattice Boltzmann method with multirange pseudopotential. Phys. Rev. E 75:026702. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.75.026702
138. Semwogerere, D., and E.R. Weeks. 2005. Confocal microscopy. In: G. Wnek and G. Bowlin, editors, Encyclopedia of biomaterials and biomedical engineering. Taylor & Francis, New York.
139. Senn, T., J.P. Esquivel, M. Lörgen, N. Sabaté, and B. Löchel. 2010. Replica molding for multilevel micro-/nanostructure replication. J. Micromech. Microeng. 20:115012. doi:10.1088/0960-1317/20/11/115012
140. Sharma, J., S.B. Inwood, and A.R. Kovscek. 2011. Experiments and analysis of multiscale viscous fingering during forced imbibition. In: SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, CO. 30 Oct.-2 Nov. 2011. Paper 143946-MS. doi:10.2118/143946-MS
141. Shinohara, K., Y. Sugii, A. Aota, A. Hibara, M. Tokeshi, T. Kitamori, and K. Okamoto. 2004a. High-speed micro-PIV measurements of transient flow in microfluidic devices. Meas. Sci. Technol. 15:1965. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/15/10/003
142. Shinohara, K., Y. Sugii, K. Okamoto, H. Madarame, A. Hibara, M. Tokeshi, and T. Kitamori. 2004b. Measurement of pH field of chemically reacting flow in microfl uidic devices by laser-induced fluorescence. Meas. Sci. Technol. 15:955-960. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/15/5/025
143. Shor, L.M., K.J. Rockne, L.Y. Young, G.L. Taghon, and D.S. Kosson. 2004. Combined effects of contaminant desorption and toxicity on risk from PAH contaminated sediments. Risk Anal. 24:1109-1120.
144. Sirivithayapakorn, S., and A. Keller. 2003. Transport of colloids in saturated porous media: A pore-scale observation of the size exclusion effect and colloid acceleration. Water Resour. Res. 39(4):1109. doi:10.1029/2002WR001583
145. Sohrabi, M., G.D. Henderson, D.H. Tehrani, and A. Danesh. 2001. Visualization of oil recovery by Water Alternating Gas (WAG) injection using high pressure micromodels: Oil-wet and mixed-wet systems. Paper presented at: SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, TX. 1-4 Oct. 2000. Paper 63000-MS. doi:10.2118/63000-MS
146. Sohrabi, M., D. Tehrani, A. Danesh, and G.D. Henderson. 2004. Visualization of oil recovery by Water-Alternating-Gas injection using high-pressure micromodels. SPE J. 9(3):290-301.
147. Soll, W.E., M.A. Celia, and J.L. Wilson. 1993. Micromodel studies of three-fluid porous media systems: Pore-scale processes relating to capillary pressure-saturation relationships. Water Resour. Res. 29:2963-2974. doi:10.1029/93WR00524
148. Soudmand-asli, A., Sh. Ayatollahi, H. Mohabatkar, M. Zareie, and S.F. Shariatpanahi. 2007. The in situ microbial enhanced oil recovery in fractured porous media. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 58:161-172. doi:10.1016/j.petrol.2006.12.004
149. Stewart, T.L., and H.S. Fogler. 2001. Biomass plug development and propagation in porous media. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 72:353-363. doi:10.1002/1097-0290(20010205)72:33.0.CO;2-U
150. Stewart, T.L., and H.S. Fogler. 2002. Pore-scale investigation of biomass plug development and propagation in porous media. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 77:577-588. doi:10.1002/bit.10044
151. Stöhr, M., K. Roth, and B. Jähne. 2003. Measurement of 3D pore-scale flow in indexmatched porous media. Exp. Fluids 35:159-166. doi:10.1007/s00348-003-0641-x.
152. Stoner, D.L., S.M. Watson, R.D. Stedtfeld, P. Meakin, L.K. Griffel, T.L. Tyler, et al. 2005. Application of stereolithographic custom models for studying the impact of biofilms and mineral precipitation on fluid flow. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:8721-8728. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.12.8721-8728.2005
153. Sugii, Y., S. Nishio, and K. Okamoto. 2002. In vivo PIV measurement of red blood cell velocity field in microvessels considering mesentery motion. Physiol. Meas. 23:403-416. doi:10.1088/0967-3334/23/2/315
154. Sugii, Y., and K. Okamoto. 2004. Quantitative visualization of micro-tube flow using micro-PIV. J. Vis. 7:9-16. doi:10.1007/BF03181480
155. Tallakstad, K.T., G. Lovoll, H.A. Knudsen, T. Ramstad, E.G. Flekkoy, and K.J. Maloy. 2009. Steady-state, simultaneous two-phase flow in porous media: An experimental study. Phys. Rev. E 80:036308. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.80.036308
156. Theodoropoulou, M.A., V. Sygouni, V. Karoutsos, and C.D. Tsakiroglou. 2005. Relative permeability and capillary pressure functions of porous media as related to the displacement growth pattern. Int. J. Multiphase Flow 31:1155-1180. doi:10.1016/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2005.06.009
157. Thompson, L.F., C.G. Willson, and M.J. Bowden, editors. 1983. Introduction to microlithography. ACS Symp. Ser. 219. Am. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
158. Thompson, L.F., C.G. Willson, and M.J. Bowden, editors. 1994. Introduction to microlithography. 2nd ed. Am. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
159. Tóth, T., D. Horváth, and Á. Tóth. 2007. Density fingering in spatially modulated Hele-Shaw cells. J. Chem. Phys. 127:234506. doi:10.1063/1.2804426
160. Tretheway, D.C., and C.D. Meinhart. 2002. Apparent fluid slip at hydrophobic microchannel walls. Phys. Fluids 14:L9-L12. doi:10.1063/1.1432696
161. Tsakiroglou, C.D., and D.G. Avraam. 2002. Fabrication of a new class of porous media models for visualization studies of multiphase flow processes. J. Mater. Sci. 37:353. doi:10.1023/A:1013660514487
162. Tsakiroglou, C.D., D.G. Avraam, and A.C. Payatakes. 2007. Transient and steadystate relative permeabilities from two-phase flow experiments in planar pore networks. Adv. Water Resour. 30:1981-1992. doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2007.04.002
163. Tsakiroglou, C.D., M.A. Theodoropoulou, and V. Karoutsos. 2003a. Nonequilibrium capillary pressure and relative permeability curves of porous media. AIChE J. 49:2472-2486. doi:10.1002/aic.690491004
164. Tsakiroglou, C.D., M. Theodoropoulou, V. Karoutsos, and D. Papanicolaou. 2005. Determination of the effective transport coefficients of pore networks from transient immiscible and miscible displacement experiments. Water Resour. Res. 41:W02014. doi:10.1029/2003WR002987
165. Tsakiroglou, C.D., M. Theodoropoulou, V. Karoutsos, D. Papanicolaou, and V. Sygouni. 2003b. Experimental study of the immiscible displacement of shear-thinning fluids in pore networks. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 267:217-232. doi:10.1016/S0021-9797(03)00635-0
166. Upadhyaya, A. 2001. Visualization of four-phase flow using micromodels. M.S. thesis. Stanford Univ., Stanford, CA. http://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/pdf/pereports/MS/Upadhyaya01.pdf
167. van der Marck, S.C., and J. Glas. 1997. Pressure measurements during forced imbibition experiments in micro-models. Eur. J. Mech. B 16:681-692.
168. van Dijke, M.I.J., K.S. Sorbie, M. Sohrabi, D. Tehrani, and A. Danesh. 2002. Threephase flow in WAG processes in mixed-wet porous media: Pore-scale network simulations and comparison with micromodel experiments. Paper presented at: SPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, OK. 13-17 April 2002. Paper 75192-MS. doi:10.2118/75192-MS
169. Vayenas, D.V., E. Michalopoulou, G.N. Constantinides, S. Pavlou, and A.C. Payatakes. 2002. Visualization experiments of biodegradation in porous media and calculation of the biodegradation rate. Adv. Water Resour. 25:203-219. doi:10.1016/S0309-1708(01)00023-9
170. Wan, J., T.K. Togunaga, C.F. Tsang, and G.S. Bodvarsson. 1996. Improved glass micromodel methods for studies of flow and transport in fractured porous media. Water Resour. Res. 32:1955-1964. doi:10.1029/96WR00755
171. Wan, J., and J.L. Wilson. 1994a. Visualization of the role of the gas-water interface on the fate of transport of colloids in porous media. Water Resour. Res. 30:11-23. doi:10.1029/93WR02403
172. Wan, J., and J.L. Wilson. 1994b. Colloid transport in unsaturated porous media. Water Resour. Res. 30:857-864. doi:10.1029/93WR03017
173. Wang, J., M. Dong, and K. Asghari. 2006. Effect of oil viscosity on heavy-oil/water relative permeability curves. Paper presented at: SPE/DOE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, Tulsa, OK. 22-26 Apr. 2006. Paper 99763-MS. doi:10.2118/99763-MS
174. Wang, W., L.M. Shor, E.J. LeBoeuf, J.P. Wikswo, and D.S. Kosson. 2005. Mobility of protozoa through narrow channels. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:4628-4637. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.8.4628-4637.2005
175. Wang, W., L.M. Shor, E.J. LeBoeuf, J.P. Wikswo, G.L. Taghon, and D.S. Kosson. 2008. Protozoa migration in bent microfluidic channels. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74:1945-1949. doi:10.1128/AEM.01044-07
176. Wardlaw, N.C. 1980. The effects of pore structure on displacement efficiency in reservoir rocks and in glass micromodels. Paper presented at: SPE/DOE Enhanced Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, OK. 20-23 Apr. 1980. Paper 8843-MS. doi:10.2118/8843-MS
177. Wegner, M.W., and J.M. Christie. 1983. Chemical etching of deformation substructures in quartz. Phys. Chem. Miner. 9:67-78. doi:10.1007/BF00308150
178. Weidman, T.W., and A.M. Joshi. 1993. New photodefinable glass etch masks for entirely dry photolithography: Plasma deposited organosilicon hydride polymers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 62:372-374. doi:10.1063/1.108960
179. Wereley, S.T., and C.D. Meinhart. 2005. Micron-resolution particle image velocimetry. In: K. Breuer, editor, Micro- and nano-scale diagnostic techniques. Springer-Verlag, New York.
180. Willingham, T.W., C.J. Werth, and A.J. Valocchi. 2008. Evaluation of the effects of porous media structure on mixing-controlled reactions using pore-scale modeling and micromodel experiments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42:3185-3193. doi:10.1021/es7022835
181. Wyckoff, R.D., and H.G. Botset. 1936. The flow of gas-liquid mixtures through unconsolidated sands. J. Appl. Phys. 7:325-345. doi:10.1063/1.1745402
182. Xia, Y., and G.M. Whitesides. 1998. Soft lithography. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37:550-575. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19980316)37:53.0.CO;2-G
183. Yeom, J., Y. Wu, J.C. Selby, and M.A. Shannona. 2005. Maximum achievable aspect ratio in deep reactive ion etching of silicon due to aspect ratio dependent transport and the microloading effect. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 23:2319-2329. doi:10.1116/1.2101678
184. Yeom, J., Y. Wu, and M.A. Shannon. 2003. Critical aspect ratio dependence in deep reactive ion etching of silicon. In: Proceedings of the 12ThInternational Conference on Solid State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems, Boston, MA. 9-12 June 2003. Vol. 2. IEEE, New York. p. 1631-1634.
185. Zang, W. 1998. Application of photo-luminescent volumetric imaging in multiphase dynamics in porous media. Ph.D. diss. Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY.
186. Zekri, A.Y., and R.A. El-Mehaideb. 2002. Microbial and water flooding of fractured carbonate rocks: An experimental approach. Presented at: SPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, OK. 13-17 Apr. 2002. Paper 75217-MS. doi:10.2118/75217-MS
187. Zhang, C., K. Dehoff, N. Hess, M. Oostrom, T.W. Wietsma, A.J. Valocchi, et al. 2010. Pore-scale study of transverse mixing induced CaCO3 precipitation and permeability reduction in a model subsurface sedimentary system. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44:7833-7838. doi:10.1021/es1019788
188. Zhang, C., M. Oostrom, J.W. Grate, T.W. Wietsma, and M.G. Warner. 2011a. Liquid CO2 displacement of water in a dual-permeability pore network micromodel. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45:7581-7588. doi:10.1021/es201858r
189. Zhang, C., M. Oostrom, T.W. Wietsma, J.G. Grate, and M.G. Warner. 2011b. Influence of viscous and capillary forces on immiscible fluid displacement: Pore-scale experimental study in a water-wet micromodel demonstrating viscous and capillary fingering. Energy Fuels 25:3493-3505. doi:10.1021/ef101732k
190. Zhou, J., A.V. Ellis, and N.H. Voelcker. 2010. Editorial: Recent developments in PDMS surface modification for microfluidic devices. Electrophoresis 31:1. doi:10.1002/elps.200990124