Red blood cell alloimmunization in sickle cell disease: Pathophysiology, risk factors, and transfusion management

Blood

Volumn 120, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 528-537

  Yazdanbakhsh, Karina ^a   Ware, Russell E ^b   Noizat Pirenne, France ^c,d,e  

^a NEW YORK BLOOD CENTER   (United States)

^b BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c ETABLISSEMENT FRANÇAIS DU SANG   (France)

^d HENRI MONDOR HOSPITAL   (France)

^e INSERM U955   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUTOANTIBODY; HLA ANTIGEN CLASS 2; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; RITUXIMAB; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR INHIBITOR;

ALLOIMMUNIZATION; ANTIBODY PRODUCTION; BLOOD DONOR; BLOOD GROUP; BLOOD TRANSFUSION; BLOOD TRANSFUSION REACTION; DELAYED HEMOLYTIC TRANSFUSION REACTION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DRUG MECHANISM; ERYTHROCYTE TRANSFUSION; ETHNICITY; HEMOLYSIS; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SICKLE CELL ANEMIA;

EID: 84864153894     PISSN: 00064971     EISSN: 15280020     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1182/blood-2011-11-327361     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Adams RJ, Brambilla D. Discontinuing prophylactic transfusions used to prevent stroke in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(26):2769-2778. (Pubitemid 43016816)
2. Lee MT, Piomelli S, Granger S, et al. Extended follow-up and final results. Blood. 2006;108(3):847-852.
3. Adams RJ, McKie VC, Hsu L, et al. Prevention of a first stroke by transfusions in children with sickle cell anemia and abnormal results on transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(1):5-11. (Pubitemid 28304491)
4. Vichinsky EP. Current issues with blood transfusions in sickle cell disease. Semin Hematol. 2001;38(1):14-22. (Pubitemid 32110268)
5. Noizat-Pirenne F, Bachir D, Chadebech P, et al. Rituximab for prevention of delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction in sickle cell disease. Haematologica. 2007;92(12):e132-e135.
6. Vichinsky EP, Earles A, Johnson RA, Hoag MS, Williams A, Lubin B. Alloimmunization in sickle cell anemia and transfusion of racially unmatched blood. N Engl J Med. 1990;322(23):1617-1621. (Pubitemid 20171584)
7. Bauer MP, Wiersum-Osselton J, Schipperus M, Vandenbroucke JP, Briet E. Clinical predictors of alloimmunization after red blood cell transfusion. Transfusion. 2007;47(11):2066-2071. (Pubitemid 47623978)
8. Rosse WF, Gallagher D, Kinney TR, et al. Transfusion and alloimmunization in sickle cell disease: the Cooperative Study of Sickle Cell Disease. Blood. 1990;76(7):1431-1437. (Pubitemid 20342762)
9. Sarnaik S, Schornack J, Lusher JM. The incidence of development of irregular red cell antibodies in patients with sickle cell anemia. Transfusion. 1986;26(3):249-252. (Pubitemid 16043351)
10. Cox JV, Steane E, Cunningham G, Frenkel EP. Risk of alloimmunization and delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions in patients with sickle cell disease. Arch Intern Med. 1988;148(11):2485-2489.
11. Murao M, Viana MB. Risk factors for alloimmunization by patients with sickle cell disease. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2005;38(5):675-682. (Pubitemid 40867506)
12. Schonewille H, van de Watering LM, Loomans DS, Brand A. Red blood cell alloantibodies after transfusion: factors influencing incidence and specificity. Transfusion. 2006;46(2):250-256. (Pubitemid 43381762)
13. Higgins JM, Sloan SR. Stochastic modeling of human RBC alloimmunization: evidence for a distinct population of immunologic responders. Blood. 2008;112(6):2546-2553.
14. Natukunda B, Schonewille H, Ndugwa C, Brand A. Red blood cell alloimmunization in sickle cell disease patients in Uganda. Transfusion. 2010; 50(1):20-25.
15. Olujohungbe A, Hambleton I, Stephens L, Serjeant B, Serjeant G. Red cell antibodies in patients with homozygous sickle cell disease: a comparison of patients in Jamaica and the United Kingdom. Br J Haematol. 2001;113(3):661-665. (Pubitemid 32524388)
16. Natukunda B, Brand A, Schonewille H. Red blood cell alloimmunization from an African perspective. Curr Opin Hematol. 2010;17(6):565-570.
17. Gupta R, Singh DK, Singh B, Rusia U. Alloimmunization to red cells in thalassemics: emerging problem and future strategies. Transfus Apher Sci. 2011;45(2):167-170.
18. Singer ST, Wu V, Mignacca R, Kuypers FA, Morel P, Vichinsky EP. Alloimmunization and erythrocyte autoimmunization in transfusion-dependent thalassemia patients of predominantly Asian descent. Blood. 2000;96(10):3369- 3373.
19. Vichinsky EP, Luban NL, Wright E, et al. Prospective RBC phenotype matching in a stroke-prevention trial in sickle cell anemia: a multicenter transfusion trial. Transfusion. 2001;41(9):1086-1092. (Pubitemid 32848083)
20. Lasalle-Williams M, Nuss R, Le T, et al. Extended red blood cell antigen matching for transfusions in sickle cell disease: a review of a 14-year experience from a single center. Transfusion. 2011;51(8):1732-1739.
21. Flegel WA. Molecular genetics of RH and its clinical application. Transfus Clin Biol. 2006;13(1):4-12.
22. Urbaniak SJ. Alloimmunity to RhD in humans. Transfus Clin Biol. 2006;13(1):19-22.
23. Daniels G, Poole G, Poole J. Partial D and weak D: can they be distinguished? Transfus Med. 2007;17(2):145-146. (Pubitemid 46558241)
24. Noizat-Pirenne F, Tournamille C. Relevance of RH variants in transfusion of sickle cell patients. Transfus Clin Biol. 2011;18(5):527-535.
25. Hemker MB, Ligthart PC, Berger L, van Rhenen DJ, van der Schoot CE, Wijk PA. DAR, a new RhD variant involving exons 4, 5, and 7, often in linkage with ceAR, a new Rhce variant frequently found in African blacks. Blood. 1999;94(12):4337-4342.
26. Westhoff CM, Vege S, Halter-Hipsky C, et al. DIIIa and DIII Type 5 are encoded by the same allele and are associated with altered RHCE*ce alleles: clinical implications. Transfusion. 2010;50(6):1303-1311.
27. Castilho L, Rios M, Rodrigues A, Pellegrino J Jr, Saad ST, Costa FF. High frequency of partial DIIIa and DAR alleles found in sickle cell disease patients suggests increased risk of alloimmunization to RhD. Transfus Med. 2005;15(1):49-55. (Pubitemid 40300008)
28. Tournamille C, Meunier-Costes N, Costes B, et al. Partial C antigen in sickle cell disease patients: clinical relevance and prevention of alloimmunization. Transfusion. 2010;50(1):13-19.
29. Faas BH, Beckers EA, Wildoer P, et al. Molecular background of VS and weak C expression in blacks. Transfusion. 1997;37(1):38-44. (Pubitemid 27068938)
30. Rouillac C, Gane P, Cartron J, Le Pennec PY, Cartron JP, Colin Y. Molecular basis of the altered antigenic expression of RhD in weak D(Du) and RhC/e in RN phenotypes. Blood. 1996;87(11): 4853-4861.
31. Reid ME, Storry JR, Sausais L, et al. DAK, a new low-incidence antigen in the Rh blood group system. Transfusion. 2003;43(10):1394-1397. (Pubitemid 37322499)
32. Anderson RR, Sosler SD, Kovach J, DeChristopher PJ. Delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction due to anti-Js(a) in an alloimmunized patient with a sickle cell syndrome. Am J Clin Pathol. 1997;108(6):658-661. (Pubitemid 27506232)
33. Squires JE, Larison PJ, Charles WT, Milner PF. A delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction due to anti-Cob. Transfusion. 1985;25(2):137-139. (Pubitemid 15076908)
34. Noizat-Pirenne F. [Immunohematologic characteristics in the Afro-Caribbean population: consequences for transfusion safety]. Transfus Clin Biol. 2003;10(3):185-191.
35. L'Abbé D, Tremblay L, Filion M, et al. Alloimmunization to platelet antigen HPA-1a (PIA1) is strongly associated with both HLA-DRB3&z.ast;0101 and HLA-DQB1&z.ast;0201. Hum Immunol. 1992;34(2):107-114.
36. Noizat-Pirenne F, Tournamille C, Bierling P, et al. Relative immunogenicity of Fya and K antigens in a Caucasian population, based on HLA class II restriction analysis. Transfusion. 2006;46(8):1328-1333. (Pubitemid 44117960)
37. Picard C, Frassati C, Basire A, et al. Positive association of DRB1 04 and DRB1 15 alleles with Fya immunization in a Southern European population. Transfusion. 2009;49(11):2412-2417.
38. Hoppe C, Klitz W, Vichinsky E, Styles L. HLA type and risk of alloimmunization in sickle cell disease. Am J Hematol. 2009;84(7):462-464.
39. Yu J, Heck S, Yazdanbakhsh K. Prevention of red cell alloimmunization by CD25 regulatory T cells in mouse models. Am J Hematol. 2007;82(8):691-696. (Pubitemid 47221648)
40. Bao W, Yu J, Heck S, Yazdanbakhsh K. Regulatory T-cell status in red cell alloimmunized responder and nonresponder mice. Blood. 2009; 113(22):5624-5627.
41. Bao W, Zhong H, Li X, et al. Immune regulation in chronically transfused allo-antibody responder and nonresponder patients with sickle cell disease and beta-thalassemia major. Am J Hematol. 2011;86(12):1001-1006.
42. Dong C. TH17 cells in development: an updated view of their molecular identity and genetic programming. Nat Rev Immunol. 2008;8(5):337-348. (Pubitemid 351595217)
43. Yang L, Anderson DE, Baecher-Allan C, et al. IL-21 and TGF-beta are required for differentiation of human T(H)17 cells. Nature. 2008;454(7202):350- 352.
44. Hibbert JM, Hsu LL, Bhathena SJ, et al. Proinflammatory cytokines and the hypermetabolism of children with sickle cell disease. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2005;230(1):68-74. (Pubitemid 40041074)
45. Bourantas KL, Dalekos GN, Makis A, Chaidos A, Tsiara S, Mavridis A. Acute phase proteins and interleukins in steady state sickle cell disease. Eur J Haematol. 1998;61(1):49-54. (Pubitemid 28326403)
46. Jison ML, Munson PJ, Barb JJ, et al. Blood mononuclear cell gene expression profiles characterize the oxidant, hemolytic, and inflammatory stress of sickle cell disease. Blood. 2004;104(1): 270-280. (Pubitemid 38879868)
47. Belcher JD, Marker PH, Weber JP, Hebbel RP, Vercellotti GM. Activated monocytes in sickle cell disease: potential role in the activation of vascular endothelium and vaso-occlusion. Blood. 2000; 96(7):2451-2459.
48. Platt OS. Sickle cell anemia as an inflammatory disease. J Clin Invest. 2000;106(3):337-338. (Pubitemid 30655633)
49. Hendrickson JE, Chadwick TE, Roback JD, Hillyer CD, Zimring JC. Inflammation enhances consumption and presentation of transfused RBC antigens by dendritic cells. Blood. 2007;110(7): 2736-2743. (Pubitemid 47523199)
50. Trombetta ES, Mellman I. Cell biology of antigen processing in vitro and in vivo. Annu Rev Immunol. 2005;23:975-1028. (Pubitemid 40563191)
51. Yazer MH, Triulzi DJ, Shaz B, Kraus T, Zimring JC. Does a febrile reaction to platelets predispose recipients to red blood cell alloimmunization? Transfusion. 2009;49(6):1070-1075.
52. Hendrickson JE, Hod EA, Perry JR, et al. Alloimmunization to transfused HOD red blood cells is not increased in mice with sickle cell disease. Transfusion. 2012;52(2):231-240.
53. Manci EA, Hillery CA, Bodian CA, Zhang ZG, Lutty GA, Coller BS. Pathology of Berkeley sickle cell mice: similarities and differences with human sickle cell disease. Blood. 2006;107(4):1651-1658. (Pubitemid 43242405)
54. Pathare A, Al Kindi S, Alnaqdy AA, Daar S, Knox- Macaulay H, Dennison D. Cytokine profile of sickle cell disease in Oman. Am J Hematol. 2004;77(4):323-328. (Pubitemid 39578309)
55. Graido-Gonzalez E, Doherty JC, Bergreen EW, Organ G, Telfer M, McMillen MA. Plasma endothelin-1, cytokine, and prostaglandin E2 levels in sickle cell disease and acute vasoocclusive sickle crisis. Blood. 1998;92(7):2551-2555. (Pubitemid 28453000)
56. Smith NH, Hod EA, Spitalnik SL, Zimring JC, Hendrickson JE. Transfusion in the absence of inflammation induces antigen specific tolerance to murine RBCs. Blood. 2012;119(6):1566-1569.
57. Gill FM, Sleeper LA, Weiner SJ, et al. Clinical events in the first decade in a cohort of infants with sickle cell disease: Cooperative Study of Sickle Cell Disease. Blood. 1995;86(2):776-783.
58. .Walter PB, Fung EB, Killilea DW, et al. Oxidative stress and inflammation in iron-overloaded patients with beta-thalassaemia or sickle cell disease. Br J Haematol. 2006;135(2):254-263. (Pubitemid 44401624)
59. Verduzco LA, Nathan DG. Sickle cell disease and stroke. Blood. 2009;114(25):5117-5125.
60. Tatari-Calderone Z, Minniti CP, Kratovil T, et al. rs660 polymorphism in Ro52 (SSA1; TRIM21) is a marker for age-dependent tolerance induction and efficiency of alloimmunization in sickle cell disease. Mol Immunol. 2009;47(1):64-70.
61. Patel SR, Hendrickson JE, Smith NH, et al. Alloimmunization against RBC or PLT antigens is independent of TRIM21 expression in a murine model. Mol Immunol. 2011;48(6):909-913.
62. Castellino SM, Combs MR, Zimmerman SA, Issitt PD, Ware RE. Erythrocyte autoantibodies in paediatric patients with sickle cell disease receiving transfusion therapy: frequency, characteristics and significance. Br J Haematol. 1999;104(1):189-194. (Pubitemid 29037039)
63. Garratty G. Autoantibodies induced by blood transfusion. Transfusion. 2004;44(1):5-9. (Pubitemid 38177129)
64. Aygun B, Padmanabhan S, Paley C, Chandrasekaran V. Clinical significance of RBC alloantibodies and autoantibodies in sickle cell patients who received transfusions. Transfusion. 2002;42(1):37-43.
65. Young PP, Uzieblo A, Trulock E, Lublin DM, Goodnough LT. Autoantibody formation after alloimmunization: are blood transfusions a risk factor for autoimmune hemolytic anemia? Transfusion. 2004;44(1):67-72. (Pubitemid 38177138)
66. Lasalle-Williams M, Nuss R, Le T, et al. Extended red blood cell antigen matching for transfusions in sickle cell disease: a review of a 14-year experience from a single center. Transfusion. 2011;51(8):1732-1739.
67. Playfair JH, Marshall-Clarke S. Induction of red cell autoantibodies in normal mice. Nat New Biol. 1973;243(128):213-214.
68. Barker RN, Casswell KM, Elson CJ. Identification of murine erythrocyte autoantigens and cross-reactive rat antigens. Immunology. 1993;78(4):568-573. (Pubitemid 23114233)
69. Barker RN, Hall AM, Standen GR, Jones J, Elson CJ. Identification of T-cell epitopes on the Rhesus polypeptides in autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Blood. 1997;90(7):2701-2715. (Pubitemid 27413480)
70. Barker RN, Shen CR, Elson CJ. T-cell specificity in murine autoimmune haemolytic anaemia induced by rat red blood cells. Clin Exp Immunol. 2002;129(2):208-213.
71. Hall AM,Ward FJ, Vickers MA, Stott LM, Urbaniak SJ, Barker RN. Interleukin-10-mediated regulatory T-cell responses to epitopes on a human red blood cell autoantigen. Blood. 2002;100(13): 4529-4536. (Pubitemid 35429694)
72. Chaplin H Jr, Zarkowsky HS. Combined sickle cell disease and autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Arch Intern Med. 1981;141(8):1091-1093.
73. Proudfit CL, Atta E, Doyle NM. Hemolytic transfusion reaction after preoperative prophylactic blood transfusion for sickle cell disease in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;110(2):471-474. (Pubitemid 47417732)
74. Win N, Doughty H, Telfer P, Wild BJ, Pearson TC. Hyperhemolytic transfusion reaction in sickle cell disease. Transfusion. 2001;41(3):323-328. (Pubitemid 32238528)
75. Milner PF, Squires JE, Larison PJ, Charles WT, Krauss JS. Posttransfusion crises in sickle cell anemia: role of delayed hemolytic reactions to transfusion. South Med J. 1985;78(12):1462-1469. (Pubitemid 16152471)
76. Fabron A Jr, Moreira G Jr, Bordin JO. Delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction presenting as a painful crisis in a patient with sickle cell anemia. Sao Paulo Med J. 1999;117(1):38-39.
77. Kalyanaraman M, Heidemann SM, Sarnaik AP, Meert KL, Sarnaik SA. Anti-s antibody-associated delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction in patients with sickle cell anemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1999;21(1):70-73. (Pubitemid 29132000)
78. Engelfriet CP, Reesink HW, Fontao-Wendel R, et al. Prevention and diagnosis of delayed haemolytic transfusion reactions. Vox Sang. 2006;91(4): 353-368. (Pubitemid 44720175)
79. Liu Y, Masuda E, Blank MC, et al. Cytokine-mediated regulation of activating and inhibitory Fc gamma receptors in human monocytes. J Leukoc Biol. 2005;77(5):767-776. (Pubitemid 40628757)
80. Chadebech P, Habibi A, Nzouakou R, et al. Delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction in sickle cell disease patients: evidence of an emerging syndrome with suicidal red blood cell death. Transfusion. 2009;49(9):1785-1792.
81. Liu C, Marshall P, Schreibman I, Vu A, Gai W, Whitlow M. Interaction between terminal complement proteins C5b-7 and anionic phospholipids. Blood. 1999;93(7):2297-2301. (Pubitemid 29153632)
82. Garratty G. The James Blundell Award Lecture 2007: do we really understand immune red cell destruction? Transfus Med. 2008;18(6):321-334.
83. Lang KS, Lang PA, Bauer C, et al. Mechanisms of suicidal erythrocyte death. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2005;15(1):195-202. (Pubitemid 40868969)
84. Hod EA, Cadwell CM, Liepkalns JS, et al. Cytokine storm in a mouse model of IgG-mediated hemolytic transfusion reactions. Blood. 2008; 112(3):891-894.
85. Davenport RD, Strieter RM, Standiford TJ, Kunkel SL. Interleukin-8 production in red blood cell incompatibility. Blood. 1990;76(12):2439-2442.
86. Davenport RD, Kunkel SL. Cytokine roles in hemolytic and nonhemolytic transfusion reactions. Transfus Med Rev. 1994;8(3):157-168. (Pubitemid 24221397)
87. Jang JE, Hod EA, Spitalnik SL, Frenette PS. CXCL1 and its receptor, CXCR2, mediate murine sickle cell vaso-occlusion during hemolytic transfusion reactions. J Clin Invest. 2011;121(4):1397-1401.
88. Setty BN, Kulkarni S, Stuart MJ. Role of erythrocyte phosphatidylserine in sickle red cellendothelial adhesion. Blood. 2002;99(5):1564-1571. (Pubitemid 34533027)
89. Brumfield CG, Huddleston JF, DuBois LB, Harris BA Jr. A delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction after partial exchange transfusion for sickle cell disease in pregnancy: a case report and review of the literature. Obstet Gynecol. 1984;63(3):13S-15S. (Pubitemid 14161369)
90. Bowen DT, Devenish A, Dalton J, Hewitt PE. Delayed haemolytic transfusion reaction due to simultaneous appearance of anti-Fya and anti-Fy5. Vox Sang. 1988;55(1):35-36.
91. Thornton JB, Sams DR. Preanesthesia transfusion and sickle cell anemia patients: case report and controversies. Spec Care Dentist. 1993; 13(6):254-257.
92. Syed SK, Sears DA,Werch JB, Udden MM, Milam JD. Case reports: delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction in sickle cell disease. Am J Med Sci. 1996;312(4):175-181. (Pubitemid 26328348)
93. McGlennan AP, Grundy EM. Delayed haemolytic transfusion reaction and hyperhaemolysis complicating peri-operative blood transfusion in sickle cell disease. Anaesthesia. 2005;60(6):609-612. (Pubitemid 40754140)
94. Noizat-Pirenne F, Lee K, Pennec PY, et al. Rare RHCE phenotypes in black individuals of Afro- Caribbean origin: identification and transfusion safety. Blood. 2002;100(12):4223-4231. (Pubitemid 35396891)
95. Larson PJ, Lukas MB, Friedman DF, Manno CS. Delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction due to anti-Go(a), an antibody against the low-prevalence Gonzales antigen. Am J Hematol. 1996;53(4):248-250. (Pubitemid 26419713)
96. Win N, New H, Lee E, de la Fuente J. Hyperhemolysis syndrome in sickle cell disease: case report (recurrent episode) and literature review. Transfusion. 2008;48(6):1231-1238. (Pubitemid 351793504)
97. King KE, Shirey RS, Lankiewicz MW, Young- Ramsaran J, Ness PM. Delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions in sickle cell disease: simultaneous destruction of recipients' red cells. Transfusion. 1997;37(4):376-381. (Pubitemid 27193550)
98. Darbari DS, Castro O, Taylor JG 6th, et al. Severe vaso-occlusive episodes associated with use of systemic corticosteroids in patients with sickle cell diseases. J Natl Med Assoc. 2008;100(8): 948-951.
99. Katz U, Achiron A, Sherer Y, Shoenfeld Y. Safety of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy. Autoimmun Rev. 2007;6(4):257-259. (Pubitemid 46274552)
100. de Montalembert M, Dumont MD, Heilbronner C, et al. Delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction in children with sickle cell disease. Haematologica. 2011;96(6):801-817.
101. Bachmeyer C, Maury J, Parrot A, et al. Rituximab as an effective treatment of hyperhemolysis syndrome in sickle cell anemia. Am J Hematol. 2010; 85(1):91-92.
102. Anstee DJ. Red cell genotyping and the future of pretransfusion testing. Blood. 2009;114(2):248-256.
103. James AB, Hillyer CD, Shaz BH. Demographic differences in estimated blood donor eligibility prevalence in the United States. Transfusion. 2012;52(5):1050-1061.
104. Masse M. Universal leukoreduction of cellular and plasma components: process control and performance of the leukoreduction process. Transfus Clin Biol. 2001;8(3):297-302. (Pubitemid 32672994)
105. Bryant BJ, Bianchi M, Wesley RA, Stroncek DF, Leitman SF. Leukoreduction filtration of wholeblood units from sickle trait donors: effects of a metered citrate anticoagulant system. Transfusion. 2007;47(12):2233-2241. (Pubitemid 350151201)
106. Reff ME, Carner K, Chambers KS, et al. Depletion of B cells in vivo by a chimeric mouse human monoclonal antibody to CD20. Blood. 1994;83(2): 435-445. (Pubitemid 24030569)
107. FrancoSalinas G, Mai HL, Jovanovic V, et al. TNF blockade abrogates the induction of T cell-dependent humoral responses in an allotransplantation model. J Leukoc Biol. 2011;90(2):367-375.
108. Turhan A, Weiss LA, Mohandas N, Coller BS, Frenette PS. Primary role for adherent leukocytes in sickle cell vascular occlusion: a new paradigm. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99(5):3047-3051. (Pubitemid 34240583)
109. Tracey D, Klareskog L, Sasso EH, Salfeld JG, Tak PP. Tumor necrosis factor antagonist mechanisms of action: a comprehensive review. Pharmacol Ther. 2008;117(2):244-279.
110. Wallace KL, Linden J. Adenosine A2A receptors induced on iNKT and NK cells reduce pulmonary inflammation and injury in mice with sickle cell disease. Blood. 2010;116(23):5010-5020.
111. Ford ML, Larsen CP. Translating costimulation blockade to the clinic: lessons learned from three pathways. Immunol Rev. 2009;229(1):294-306.
112. Hall AM, Cairns LS, Altmann DM, Barker RN, Urbaniak SJ. Immune responses and tolerance to the RhD blood group protein in HLA-transgenic mice. Blood. 2005;105(5):2175-2179. (Pubitemid 40731810)
113. Veldhuisen B, van der Schoot CE, de Haas M. Blood group genotyping: from patient to high-throughput donor screening. Vox Sang. 2009;97(3):198-206.
114. Reid ME, Lomas-Francis C. The Blood Group Antigen FactsBook. Waltham, MA: Elsevier Academic Press; 2003.