Face Processing in Autism: Insights from the Perceptual Expertise Framework

Perceptual Expertise: Bridging Brain and Behavior

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages

  Curby, Kim M ^a   Willenbockel, Verena ^b   Tanaka, James W ^b   Schultz, Robert T ^c  

^a TEMPLE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

^c YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Autism spectrum disorder; Emotion processing; Expertise; Face recognition; FFA; Holistic processing; N170

Indexed keywords

EID: 84863871867     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195309607.003.0006     Document Type: Chapter

References (142)

1. Allison, T., Puce, A., & McCarthy, G. (2000). Social perception from visual cues: Role of the STS region. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(7), 267-278.
2. Amaral, D. G., & Price J. L. (1984). Amygdalo-cortical projections in the monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Journal of Comparative Neurology, 230(4), 465-496.
3. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC.
4. Anderson, G. (2008). The potential role for emergence in autism. Autism Research, 1, 18-30.
5. Aylward, E. H., Minshew, N. J., Goldstein, G., Honeycutt, N. A., Augustine, A. M., Yates, K. O., Barta, P. E., & Pearlson, G. D. (1999). MRI volumes of amygdala and hippocampus in non-mentally retarded autistic adolescents and adults. Neurology, 53(9), 2145-2150.
6. Bachevalier, J., & Loveland, K. A. (2006). The orbitofrontal-amygdala circuit and selfregulation of social-emotional behavior in autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Review, 30(1), 97-117.
7. Bailey, A. J., Braeutigam, S., Jousmaki, V., & Swithenby, S. J. (2005). Abnormal activation of face processing systems at early and intermediate latency in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: a magnetoencephalographic study. European Journal of Neuroscience, 21(9), 2575-2585.
8. Bailey, A., Le Couteur, A., Gottesman, I., Bolton, P., Simonoff, E., Yuzda, E., & Rutter, M. (1995). Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: Evidence from a British twin study. Psychological Medicine, 25(1), 63-77.
9. Baranek, G. T. (1999). Autism during infancy: A retrospective video analysis of sensorymotor and social behaviors at 9-12 months of age. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(3), 213-224.
10. Baron-Cohen, S., & Belmonte, M. K. (2005). Autism: A window onto the development of the social and the analytic brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28, 109-126.
11. Baron-Cohen, S., Campbell, R., Karmiloff-Smith, A., Grant, J., & Walker, J. (1999). Are children with autism blind to the mentalistic significance of the eyes? British Journal of Psychology, 13, 379-398.
12. Bauman, M., & Kemper, T. L. (1985) Histoanatomic observations of the brain in early infantile autism. Neurology, 35, 866-874.
13. Bauman, M., & Kemper T. L. (1994) Neuroanatomic observations of the brain in autism. In: The neurobiology of autism M. Bauman & T. L. Kemper (Eds.), pp. 119-145. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP.
14. Behrmann, M., Avidan, G., Leonard, G. L., Kimchi, R., Luna, B., Humphreys, K., & Minshew, N. (2006). Configural processing in autism and its relationship to face processing. Neuropsychologia, 44(1), 110-129.
15. Behrmann, M., Thomas, C., & Humphreys, K. (2006). Seeing it differently: Visual processing in autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(6), 258-264.
16. Bentin, S., & Deouell, L. Y. (2000). Structural encoding and identification in face processing: ERP evidence for separate mechanisms. Cognitive Psychology, 17(1-3), 35-55.
17. Bentin, S., Allison, T., Puce, A., Perez, E., & McCarthy, G. (1996). Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8(6), 551-565.
18. Blair, R. J., Frith, U., Smith, N., Abell, F., & Cipolotti, L. (2002). Fractionation of visual memory: Agency detection and its impairment in autism. Neuropsychologia, 40(1), 108-118.
19. Blakemore, C., & Campbell, F. W. (1969a). Adaptation to spatial stimuli. Journal of Physiology, 200(1), 11P-13P.
20. Blakemore, C., & Campbell, F. W. (1969b). On the existence of neurones in the human visual system selectively sensitive to the orientation and size of retinal images. Journal of Physiology, 203(1), 237-260.
21. Boucher, J. & Lewis, V. (1992). Unfamiliar face recognition in relatively able autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33(5), 843-859.
22. Brian, J. A., & Bryson, S. E. (1996). Disembedding performance and recognition memory in autism/PDD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 37(7), 865-872.
23. Bushnell, I. W., Sai, F., & Mullin, J. T. (1989). Neonatal recognition of the mother's face. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7(1), 3-15.
24. Campbell, F. W., & Robson, J. R. (1968). Application of Fourier analysis to the visibility of gratings. Journal of Physiology,197 551-566.
25. Carey, S. (1996). Perceptual categorization and expertise. In R. Gelman & T. Kit-Fong Au (Eds.), Perceptual and cognitive development (pp. 49-69). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
26. Carey, S., & Diamond, R. (1994). Are faces perceived as configurations more by adults than by children? Visual Cognition, 1, 253-274.
27. Cassia, V. M., Turati, C., & Simion, F. (2004). Can a nonspecific bias toward top-heavy patterns explain newborns' face preference? Psychological Science, 15(6), 379-383.
28. Carver, L. J., Dawson, G., Panagiotides, H., Meltzoff, A. N., McPartland, J., Gray, J., & Munson, J. (2003). Age-related differences in neural correlates of face recognition during the toddler and preschool years. Developmental Psychobiology, 42(2), 148-159.
29. Castelli, F., Frith, C. D., Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2002). Autism, Asperger syndrome and brain mechanisms for the attribution of mental states to animated shapes. Brain, 125, 1839-1849.
30. Celani, G., Battacchi, M. W., & Arcidiacono, L. (1999). The understanding of the emotional meaning of facial expressions in people with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(1), 57-66.
31. Cheung, O. S., Richler, J. J., Palmeri, T. J., & Gauthier, I. (2008). Revisiting the role of spatial frequencies in the holistic processing of faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34(6), 1327-1336.
32. Critchley, H. D., Daly, E. M., Bullmore, E. T., Williams, S. C., Van Amelsvoort, T., Robertson, D. M., et al. (2000). The functional neuroanatomy of social behaviour: Changes in cerebral blood flow when people with autistic disorder process facial expressions. Brain, 123(11), 2203-2212.
33. Curby, K. M., Schyns, P., Gosselin. F., & Gauthier, I. (2003, May). Spatial frequency use in Asperger's syndrome. Annual meeting of the Vision Science Society, Sarasota, FL.
34. Dalton, K. M., Nacewicz, B. M., Johnstone, J., Schaefer, H. S., Gernsbacher, B. A., Goldsmith, H. H., Alexander, A. L., & Davidson, R. J. (2005). Gaze fixation and the neural circuitry of face processing in autism. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 519-526.
35. Dawson, G., Carver, L., Meltzoff, A. N., Panagiotides, H., McPartland, J., & Webb, S. J. (2002). Neural correlates of face and object recognition in young children with autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay, and typical development. Child Development, 73(3), 700-717.
36. Dawson, G., Webb, S. J., Carver, L., Panagiotides, H., & McPartland, J. (2004). Young children with autism show atypical brain responses to fearful versus neutral facial expressions of emotion. Developmental Science, 7(3), 340-359.
37. Dawson, G., Webb, S. J., & McPartland, J. (2005). Understanding the nature of face processing impairment in autism: Insights from behavioral and electrophysiological studies. Developmental Neuropsychology, 27(3), 403-424.
38. De Haan, M., Johnson, M. H., Maurer, D., & Perrett, D. I. (2001). Recognition of individual faces and average face prototypes by 1- and 3-month-old infants. Cognitive Development, 16(2), 659-678.
39. De Haan, M., & Nelson, C. A. (1999). Brain activity differentiates face and object processing by 6-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology, 34, 1114-1121.
40. Deruelle, C., Rondan, C., Gepner, B., & Tardif, C. (2004). Spatial frequency and face processing in children with autism and Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), 199-210.
41. Deruelle, C., Rondan, C., Salle-Collemiche, X., Bastard-Rosset, D., & Da Fonséca, D. (2008). Attention to low- and high-spatial frequencies in categorizing facial identities, emotions and genders in children with autism. Brain and Cognition, 66, 115-123.
42. De Valois, R. L., & De Valois, K. K. (1988). Spatial vision. New York: Oxford University Press.
43. Eckhorn, R., Reitboeck, H. J., Arndt, M., & Dicke, P. (1990). Feature linking via synchronization among distributed assemblies: Simulations of results from cat visual cortex. Neural Computation, 2(3), 293-307.
44. Eger, E., Schyns, P. G., & Kleinschmidt, A. (2004). Scale invariant adaptation in fusiform face-responsive regions. NeuroImage, 22(1), 232-242.
45. Eimer, M. (1998). Does the face-specific N170 component reflect the activity of a specialized eye processor? NeuroReport, 9(13), 2945-2948.
46. Eimer, M. (2000a). Event-related brain potentials distinguish processing stages involved in face perception and recognition. Clinical Neurophysiology, 111(4), 694-705.
47. Eimer, M. (2000b). Effects of face inversion on the structural encoding and recognition of faces: Evidence from event-related brain potentials. Cognitive Brain Research, 10(1-2), 145-158.
48. Eimer, M. (2000c). Attentional modulation of event-related brain potentials sensitive to faces. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 17(1-3), 103-116.
49. Eimer, M., & Holmes, A. (2002). An ERP study on the time course of emotional face processing. NeuroReport, 13(4), 427-431.
50. Farah, M. J., Wilson, K. D., Drain, M., & Tanaka, J. N. (1998). What is "special" about face perception? Psychological Review, 105(3), 482-498.
51. Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition & Emotion, 19(3), 313-332.
52. Freire, A., Lee, K., & Symons, L. A. (2000). The face-inversion effect as a deficit in the encoding of configural information: Direct evidence. Perception, 29, 159-170.
53. Frith, U. (1989). Autism: Explaining the enigma. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
54. Gauthier, I., & Tarr, M. J. (2002). Unraveling mechanisms for expert object recognition: Bridging brain activity and behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28(2), 431-446.
55. Gauthier, I., Curby, K. M., Skudlarski, P., & Epstein, R. A. (2005). Individual differences in FFA activity suggest independent processing at different spatial scales. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience, 5(2), 222-234.
56. Gauthier, I., Curran, T., Curby, K. M., & Collins, D. (2003). Perceptual interference supports a non-modular account of face processing. Nature Neuroscience, 6(4), 428-432.
57. Gauthier, I., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., & Anderson, A. W. (2000). Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition. Nature Neuroscience, 3(2), 191-197.
58. Gauthier, I., Tarr, M. J., Anderson, A. W., Skudlarski, P., & Gore, J. C. (1999). Activation of the middle fusiform 'face area' increases with expertise in recognizing novel objects. Nature Neuroscience, 2(6), 568-573.
59. George, N., Evans, J., Fiori, N., Davidoff, J., & Renault, B. (1996). Brain events related to normal and moderately scrambled faces. Cognitive Brain Research, 4, 65-76.
60. Geschwind, D. H., & Levitt, P. (2007). Autism spectrum disorders: Developmental disconnection syndromes. Current Opinions in Neurobiology, 17(1), 103-111.
61. Goffaux, V., Gauthier, I., & Rossion, B. (2003). Spatial scale contribution to early visual differences between face and object processing. Cognitive Brain Research, 16(3), 416-424.
62. Goffaux, V., & Rossion, B. (2006). Faces are "spatial"-holistic face perception is supported by low spatial frequencies. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32(4), 1023-1039.
63. Goren, C. C., Sarty, M., & Wu, P. Y. K. (1975). Visual following and pattern discrimination of face-like stimuli by newborn infants. Pediatrics, 56(4), 544-549.
64. Gray, C. M., König, P., Engel, A. K., & and Singer, W. (1989). Oscillatory responses in cat visual cortex exhibit inter-columnar synchronization which reflects global stimulus properties. Nature, 338, 334-336.
65. Grelotti, D. J., Klin, A. J., Gauthier, I., Skudlarski, P., Cohen, D. J., Gore, J. C., Volkmar, F. R., & Schultz, R. T. (2005). fMRI activation of the fusiform gyrus and amygdala to cartoon characters but not to faces in a boy with autism. Neuropsychologia, 43(3), 373-385.
66. Grice, S. J., Spratling, M. W., Karmiloff-Smith, A., Halit, H., Csibra, G., de Haan, M., & Johnson, M. H. (2001). Disordered visual processing and oscillatory brain activity in autism and Williams syndrome. NeuroReport, 12(12), 2697-2700.
67. Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2006). The weak coherence account: Detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(1), 5-25.
68. Hobson, R. P., Ouston, J., & Lee, A. (1988). What's in a face? The case of autism. British Journal of Psychology, 79, 441-453.
69. Howard, M. A., Cowell, P. E., Boucher, J., Broks, P., Mayes, A., Farrant, A., & Roberts, N. (2000). Convergent neuroanatomical and behavioural evidence of an amygdala hypothesis of autism. NeuroReport, 11(13), 2931-2935.
70. Jemel, B., Mottron, L., & Dawson, M. (2006). Impaired face processing in autism: Fact or artifact? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(1), 91-106.
71. Johnson, K. J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2005). "We All Look the Same to Me": Positive emotions eliminate the own-race bias in face recognition. Psychological Science, 16(11), 875-881.
72. Johnson, M. H., Dziurawiec, S., Ellis, H., & Morton, J. (1991). Newborns' preferential tracking of face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline. Cognition, 40(1-2), 1-19.
73. Jolliffe, T., & Baron Cohen, S. (1997). Are people with autism and Asperger syndrome faster than normal on the Embedded Figures Test? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 38(5), 527-534.
74. Joseph, R. M., & Tanaka, J. (2003). Holistic and part-based face recognition in children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 44(4), 529-542.
75. Juranek, J., Filipek, P. A., Berenji, G. R., Modahl, C., Osann, K., & Spence, M. A. (2006). Association between amygdala volume and anxiety level: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study in autistic children. Journal of Child Neurology, 21(12), 1051-1058.
76. Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., & Chun, M. M. (1997). The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 4302-4311.
77. Keil, A., Müller, M. M., Ray, W. J., Gruber, T., & Elbert, T. (1999). Human gamma band activity and perception of a gestalt. The Journal of Neuroscience, 19(16), 7152-7161.
78. Klin, A., Jones, W., Schultz, R., Volkmar, F., & Cohen, D. (2002). Visual fixation patterns during viewing of naturalistic social situations as predictors of social competence in individuals with autism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(9), 809-816.
79. Klin, A., Sparrow, S. S., de Bildt, A., Cicchetti, D. V., Cohen, D. J., & Volkmar, F. R. (1999). A normed study of face recognition in autism and related disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(6), 499-508.
80. Langdell, T. (1978). Recognition of faces: An approach to the study of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 19(3), 255-268.
81. Maestro, S., Muratori, F., Cavallaro, M. C., Pei, F., Stern, D., Golse, B., & Palacio-Espasa, F. (2002). Attentional skills during the first 6 months of age in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(10), 1239-1245.
82. McPartland, J., Dawson, G., Webb, S. J., Panagiotides, H., & Carver, L. J. (2004). Eventrelated brain potentials reveal anomalies in temporal processing of faces in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(7), 1235-1245.
83. Milner, P. M. (1974). A model for visual shape recognition. Psychological Review, 81(6), 521-535.
84. Morton, J. & Johnson, M. H. (1991). CONSPEC and CONLERN: A two-process theory of infant face recognition. Psychological Review, 98(2), 164-181.
85. Mottron, L., Burack, J. A., Stauder, J. E. A., & Robaey, P. (1999). Perceptual processing among high-functioning persons with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40(2), 203-211.
86. Mottron, L., Dawson, M., Soulieres, I., Hubert, B., & Burack, J. (2006). Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: An update, and eight principles of autistic perception. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(1), 27-43.
87. Mundy, P., Sigman, M., Ungerer, J., & Sherman, T. (1986). Defining the social deficits of autism: The contribution of non-verbal communication measures. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27(5), 657-669.
88. Nacewicz, B. M., Dalton, K. M., Johnstone, T., Long, M. T., McAuliff, E. M., Oakes, T. R., Alexander, A. L., & Davidson, R. J. (2006). Amygdala volume and nonverbal social impairment in adolescent and adult males with autism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(12), 1417-1428.
89. Nelson, C. A., & de Haan, M. (1996). Neural correlates of infants' visual responsiveness to facial expression of emotion. Developmental Psychobiology, 29(7), 577-595.
90. Njiokiktjien, C., Verschoor, A., de Sonneville, L., Huyser, C., Op het Veld, V., & Toorenaar, N. (2001). Disordered recognition of facial identity and emotions in three Asperger type autists. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 10(1), 79-90.
91. O'Roak, B., & State, M. (2008). Autism genetics: Strategies, challenges, and opportunities. Autism Research, 1, 4-17.
92. Osterling, J., & Dawson, G. (1994). Early recognition of children with autism: A study of first birthday home videotapes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(3), 247-257.
93. Osterling, J. A., Dawson, G., & Munson, J. A. (2002). Early recognition of 1-year-old infants with autism spectrum disorder versus mental retardation. Developmental Psychopathology, 14(2), 239-251.
94. Ozonoff, S., Rogers, S. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1991). Asperger's syndrome: Evidence of an empirical distinction from high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 32(7), 1107-1122.
95. Pasley, B. N., Mayes, L. C. & Schultz, R. T. (2004). Subcortical discrimination of unperceived objects during binocular rivalry. Neuron, 42, 163-172.
96. Pelphrey, K. A., Morris, J. P., & McCarthy, G. (2005). Neural basis of eye gaze processing deficits in autism. Brain, 128(5), 1038-1048.
97. Pelphrey, K. A., Sasson, N. J., Reznick, J. S., Paul, G., Goldman, B. D., & Piven, J. (2002). Visual scanning of faces in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(4), 249-261.
98. Pierce, K., Haist, F., Sedaghat, F., & Courchesne, E. (2004). The brain response to personally familiar faces in autism: Findings of fusiform activity and beyond. Brain, 127(Pt. 12), 2703-2716.
99. Pierce, K., Müller, R. A., Ambrose, J., Allen, G., & Courshesne, E. (2001). Face processing occurs outside the fusiform "face area" in autism: Evidence from functional MRI. Brain, 124, 2703-2073.
100. Plaisted, K. C., Swettenham, J., & Rees, L. (1999). Children with autism show local precedence in a divided attention task and global precedence in a selective attention task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40(5), 733-742.
101. Rebai, M., Poiroux, S., Bernard, C., & Lalonde, R. (2001). Event-related potentials for category-specific information during passive viewing of faces and objects. International Journal of Neuroscience, 106(3-4), 209-226.
102. Rinehart, N. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Moss, S. A., Brereton, A. V., & Tonge, B. J. (2000). Atypical interference of local detail on global processing in high-functioning autism and Asperger's disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41(6), 769-778.
103. Ristic, J., Mottron, L., Friesen, C. K., Iarocci, G., Burack, J. A., & Kingstone, A. (2005). Eyes are special but not for everyone: The case of autism. Cognitive Brain Research, 24(3), 715-718.
104. Rodriguez, E., George, N., Lachaux, J. P., Martinerie, J., Renault, B., & Varela, F. J. (1999). Perception's shadow: Long-distance synchronization of human brain activity. Nature, 397, 430-433.
105. Rojas, D. C., Smith, J. A., Benkers, T. L., Camou, S. L., Reite, M. L., & Rogers, S. J. (2004). Hippocampus and amygdala volumes in parents of children with autistic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(11), 2038-2044.
106. Rossion, B., Gauthier, I., Tarr, M. J., Despland, P. A., Linotte, S., Bruyer, R., & Crommelinck, M. (2000). The N170 occipito-temporal component is enhanced and delayed to inverted faces but not to inverted objects: An electrophyiological account of face-specific processes in the human brain. NeuroReport, 11, 1-6.
107. Rotshtein, P., Vuilleumier, P., Winston, J., Driver, J., & Dolan, R. (2007). Distinct and convergent visual processing of high and low spatial frequency information in faces. Cerebral Cortex, 17(11), 2713-2724.
108. Schultz, R. T. (2005). Developmental deficits in social perception in autism: The role of the amygdala and fusiform face area. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23(2-3), 125-141.
109. Schultz, R. T., Chawarska, K., & Volkmar, F. R. (2006). The social brain in autism: Perspectives from neuropsychology and neuroimaging. In S.O. Moldin & J. L. R. Rubenstein (Eds.), Understanding autism: From basic neuroscience to treatment. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 323-348.
110. Schultz, R. T., Gauthier, I., Klin A., Fulbright, R., Anderson, A., Volkmar, F., Skudlarski, P., Lacadie, C., Cohen, D. J., & Gore, J. C. (2000). Abnormal ventral temporal cortical activity during face discrimination among individuals with autism and Asperger syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57(3), 331-340.
111. Schultz, R. T., Grelotti, D. J., Klin, A., Kleinman, J., Van der Gaag, C., Marois, R., & Skudlarski, P. (2003). The role of the fusiform face area in social cognition: Implications for the pathobiology of autism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B, Biological Sciences, 358(1430), 415-427.
112. Schultz, R. T., Hunyadi, E., Connors, C., & Pasley, B. (2005, June). fMRI study of facial expression perception in autism: The amygdala, fusiform face area and their functional connectivity. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Organization for Human Brain Mapping, Toronto, Canada.
113. Schumann, C. & Amaral, D. G. (2006). Stereological analysis of amygdala neuron number in autism. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26(29), 7674-7679.
114. Schumann, C. M., Hamstra, J., Goodlin-Jones, B. L., Lotspeich, L. J., Kwon, H., Buonocore, M. H., Lammers, C. R., Reiss, A. L., & Amaral, D. G. (2004). The amygdala is enlarged in children but not adolescents with autism; the hippocampus is enlarged at all ages. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 6392-6401.
115. Sergent, J. (1986). Microgenesis of face perception. In H. D. Ellis, M. A. Reeves, F. Newcombe, and A. W. Young (Eds.), Aspects of Face Processing. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff.
116. Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1983). An islet of ability in autistic children: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 24(4), 613-620.
117. Shah A., & Frith, U. (1993). Why do autistic individuals show superior performance on the block design task? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(8), 1351-1364.
118. Shulman, G. L., Sullivan, M. A., Gish, K., & Sakoda, W. J. (1986). The role of spatialfrequency channels in the perception of local and global structure. Perception, 15(3), 259-273.
119. Shulman, G. L., & Wilson, J. (1987). Spatial frequency and selective attention to local and global information. Perception, 16(1), 89-101.
120. Simion, F., Valenza, E., Umilta, C., & Dalla Barba, B. (1998). Preferential orienting to faces in newborns: A temporal-nasal asymmetry. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 24(5), 1399-1405.
121. Sparks, B. F., Friedman, S. D., Shaw, D. W., Aylward, E. H., Echelard, D., Artru, A. A., Maravilla, K. R., Giedd, J. N., Munson, J., Dawson, G., & Dager, S. R. (2002). Brain structural abnormalities in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Neurology, 59(2), 184-192.
122. Tanaka, J. W., & Farah, M. J. (1993). Parts and wholes in face recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46A, 225-245.
123. Tanaka, J. W., & Sengco, J. A. (1997). Features and their configuration in face recognition. Memory & Cognition, 25(5), 583-592.
124. Tantam, D., Monaghan, L., Nicholson, H., & Stirling, J. (1989). Autistic children's ability to interpret faces: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 623-630.
125. Tarr, M. J., & Gauthier, I. (2000). FFA: A flexible fusiform area for subordinate-level visual processing automatized by expertise. Nature Neuroscience, 3(8), 764-769.
126. Teunisse, J. P., & de Gelder, B. (2003). Face processing in adolescents with autistic disorder: The inversion and composite effects. Brain and Cognition, 52(3), 285-294.
127. Thioux, M., Stark, D. E., Klaiman, C., & Schultz, R. T. (2006). The day of the week when you were born in 700 ms: Calendar computation in an autistic savant. Journal of Experimental Psycholology: Human Perception and Performance, 32(5), 1155-1168.
128. Treffert, A. D. (1989). Extraordinary people. New York: Harper & Row.
129. Trepagnier, C., Sebrechts, M. M., & Peterson, R. (2002). Atypical face gaze in autism. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5(3), 213-217.
130. van der Geest, J. N., Kemner, C., Verbaten, M. N., & van Engeland, H. (2002). Gaze behavior of children with pervasive developmental disorder toward human faces: A fixation time study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(5), 669-678.
131. Volkmar, F., Lord, C., Bailey, A., Schultz, R. T., & Klin, A. (2004). Autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(1), 135-170.
132. Vuilleumier, P., Armony, J. L., Driver, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Distinct spatial frequency sensitivities for processing faces and emotional expressions. Nature Neuroscience, 6(6), 624-631.
133. Vuilleumier, P., Richardson, M. P., Armony, J. L., Driver, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2004). Distant influences of amygdala lesion on visual cortical activation during emotional face processing. Nature Neuroscience, 7(11), 1271-1278.
134. Wang, L., Mottron, L., Peng, D., Berthiaume, C. & Dawson, M. (2007). Local bias and localto-global interference without global deficit: A robust finding in autism under various conditions of attention, exposure time, and visual angle. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 24(5), 550-574.
135. Weeks, S. J., & Hobson, R. P. (1987). The salience of facial expression for autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28(1), 137-151.
136. Willenbockel, V., Fiset, D., Chauvin, A., Blais, C., Argin, M.,Tanaka, J. W., Bub, D. N., & Gosselin, F. (in press). Does face inversion change spatial frequency tuning?
137. Winston, J. S., Vuilleumier, P., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Effects of low-spatial frequency components of fearful faces on fusiform cortex activity. Current Biology, 13(20), 1824-1829.
138. Wing, L., & Gould, J. (1979). Severe impairments of social interaction and associated abnormalities in children: Epidemiology and classification. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 9(1), 11-29.
139. Wolf, J. M., Tanaka, J. W., Klaiman, C., Cockburn, J., Herlihy, L., Brown, C, South, M., McPartland, J., Kaiser, M. D., Phillips, R., & Schultz, R. T. (in press). Specific impairment of face processing abilities in children with autism spectrum disorder using the Let's Face It! skills battery. Autism Research.
140. Wolf, J. M., Tanaka, J. W., Klaiman, C., Koenig, K., Cockburn, J., Herlihy, L., Brown, C., Stahl, S. S., South, M., McPartland, J., & Schultz, R. T. (2008). Let's Face It! A computerbased intervention for strengthening face processing skills in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. International Meeting for Autism Research, London, England.
141. Yin, R. K. (1969). Looking at upside-down faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81(1), 141-145.
142. Young, A. W., Hellawell, D., & Hay, D. (1987). Configural information in face perception. Perception, 10, 747-759.