Fire and the angiosperm revolutions

International Journal of Plant Sciences

Volumn 173, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 569-583

  Bond, William J ^a   Midgley, Jeremy J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Angiosperm evolution; Biome; Carbon dioxide; Charcoal; Fire; Fire ecology; Paleo oxygen; Plant functional traits

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; ANGIOSPERM; BIOME; BROAD-LEAVED FOREST; CARBON DIOXIDE; CHARCOAL; CONIFEROUS TREE; CRETACEOUS; DEVONIAN; FERN; FIRE BEHAVIOR; FIRE HISTORY; GRASS; PHYLOGENY; UPLAND REGION; VEGETATION STRUCTURE;

CONIFEROPHYTA; FILICOPHYTA; GYMNOSPERMAE; MAGNOLIOPHYTA; POACEAE;

EID: 84863670995     PISSN: 10585893     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/665819     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. Agee JK 1998 Fire and pine ecosystems. Pages 193-218 in DM Richardson, ed. Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
2. Arakaki M, P-A Christin, R Nyffeler, A Lendel, U Eggli, RM Ogburn, E Spriggs, MJ Moore, EJ Edwards 2011 Contemporaneous and recent radiations of the world's major succulent plant lineages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:8379-8384.
3. Bakker RT 1978 Dinosaur feeding behaviour and the origin of flowering plants. Nature 274:661-663.
4. Balch JK, DC Nepstad, PM Brando, LM Curran, O Portela, O de Carvalho Jr, P Lefebvre 2008 Negative fire feedback in a transitional forest of southeastern Amazonia. Glob Change Biol 14: 2276-2287, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01655.x.
5. Barlow J, CA Peres 2004 Ecological responses to El Niñ o-induced surface fires in central Brazilian Amazonia: management implications for flammable tropical forests. Philos Trans R Soc B 359: 367-380.
6. Barrett PM, KJ Willis 2001 Did dinosaurs invent flowers? dinosaurangiosperm coevolution revisited. Biol Rev 76:411-447.
7. Baskin JM, CC Baskin 2004 A classification system for seed dormancy. Seed Sci Res 14:1-16.
8. Beerling DJ, CP Osborne 2006 Origin of the savanna biome. Glob Change Biol 12:2023-2031.
9. Beerling DJ, DL Royer 2011 Earth's atmospheric CO2 history by proxy. Nat Geosci 4:418-420.
10. Belcher CM, JC McElwain 2008 Limits for combustion in low O2 redefine paleoatmospheric predictions for the Mesozoic. Science 321:1197-1220.
11. Belcher CM, JM Yearsley, RM Hadden, JC McElwain, G Rein 2010 Baseline intrinsic flammability of Earth's ecosystems estimated from paleoatmospheric oxygen over the past 350 million years. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:22448-22453.
12. Berendse F, M Scheffer 2009 The angiosperm radiation revisited, an ecological explanation for Darwin's ''abominable mystery.'' Ecol Lett 12:865-872.
13. Bergman NM, TM Lenton, AJ Watson 2004 COPSE: a new model of biogeochemical cycling over Phanerozoic time. Am J Sci 304:397-437.
14. Berner RA 2006 GEOCARBSULF: a combined model for Phanerozoic atmospheric O2 and CO2. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 70: 5653-5664.
15. Berner RA 2009 Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen: new results using the GEOCARBSULF model. Am J Sci 309:603-606.
16. Bond WJ 1989 The tortoise and the hare: ecology of angiosperm dominance and gymnosperm persistence. Biol J Linn Soc 36: 227-249.
17. Bond WJ, GF Midgley 2000 A proposed CO2-controlled mechanism of woody plant invasion in grasslands and savannas. Glob Change Biol 6:865-869.
18. Bond WJ, GF Midgley 2012 CO2 and the uneasy interactions of trees and savanna grasses. Philos Trans R Soc B 367:601-612.
19. Bond WJ, JJ Midgley 2003 The evolutionary ecology of sprouting. Int J Plant Sci 164:S103-S114.
20. Bond WJ, AC Scott 2010 Fire and the spread of flowering plants in the Cretaceous. New Phytol 188:1137-1150.
21. Bond WJ, FI Woodward, GF Midgley 2005 The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire. New Phytol 165:525-538.
22. Bowman DMJS 2000 Australian rainforests: islands of green in a land of fire. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
23. Bowman DMJS, JK Balch, P Artaxo, WJ Bond, JM Carlson, MA Cochrane, CM D'Antonio, et al 2009 Fire in the Earth system. Science 324:481-484.
24. Bowman DMJS, S Harris 1995 Conifers of Australia's dry forests and open woodland. Pages 252-270 in NJ Enright, RS Hill, eds. Ecology of the southern conifers. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
25. Bowman DMJS, BP Murphy, DS Banfai 2010 Has global environmental change caused monsoon rainforests to expand in the Australian monsoon tropics? Landsc Ecol 25:1247-1260, doi:10.1007/ s10980-010-9496-8.
26. Boyce CK, TJ Brodribb, TS Feild, MA Zwieniecki 2009 Angiosperm leaf vein evolution was physiologically and environmentally transformative. Proc R Soc B 276:1771-1776.
27. Bradstock RA 2010 A biogeographic model of fire regimes in Australia: current and future implications. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 19: 145-158.
28. Breecker DO, ZD Sharp, LD McFadden 2010 Atmospheric CO2 concentrations during ancient greenhouse climates were similar to those predicted for A.D. 2100. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:576-580.
29. Briggs JM, AK Knapp, JB Blair, JL Heisler, GA Hoch 2005 An ecosystem in transition: causes and consequences of the conversion of mesic grassland to shrubland. BioScience 55:243-254.
30. Brodribb TJ, TS Feild 2010 Leaf hydraulic evolution led a surge in leaf photosynthetic capacity during early angiosperm diversification. Ecol Lett 13:175-183.
31. Brown NAC, J van Staden, MI Daws, T Johnson 2003 Patterns in the seed germination response to smoke in plants from the Cape floristic region, South Africa. S Afr J Bot 69:514-525.
32. Burnham RJ, KR Johnson 2004 South American palaeobotany and the origins of Neotropical rainforests. Philos Trans R Soc B 359: 1595-1610.
33. Burrows GE 2002 Epicormic strand structure in Angophora, Eucalyptus and Lophostemon (Myrtaceae): implications for fire resistance and recovery. New Phytol 153:111-131.
34. Butler RJ, PM Barrett, P Kenrick, MG Penn 2009 Diversity patterns amongst herbivorous dinosaurs and plants during the Cretaceous: implications for hypotheses of dinosaur/angiosperm co-evolution. J Evol Biol 22:446-459.
35. Bytebier B, A Antonelli, DU Bellstedt, HP Linder 2011 Estimating the age of fire in the Cape flora of South Africa from an orchid phylogeny. Proc R Soc B 278:188-195.
36. Cerling TE, JM Harris, BJ MacFadden, MG Leakey, J Quade, V Eisenmann, JR Ehleringer 1997 Global vegetation change through the Miocene/Pliocene boundary. Nature 389:153-158.
37. Chaloner WG 1989 Fossil charcoal as an indicator of palaeoatmospheric oxygen level. J Geol Soc Lond 146:171-174.
38. Chuvieco E, L Giglio, C Justice 2008 Global characterization of fire activity: toward defining fire regimes from Earth observation data. Glob Change Biol 14:1488-1502.
39. Cochrane M 2003 Fire science for rainforests. Nature 221:913-919.
40. Cochrane MA, A Alencar, MD Schulze, CM Souza, DC Nepstad, P Lefebvre, EA Davidson 1999 Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamic of closed canopy tropical forests. Science 284:1832-1835.
41. Collinson ME, C Featherstone, JA Cripps, GJ Nichols, AC Scott 2000 Charcoal-rich plant debris accumulations in the lower Cretaceous of the Isle of Wight, England. Acta Palaeobot 2(suppl): 93-105.
42. Cornwell WK, JHC Cornelissen, K Amatangelo, E Dorrepaal, VT Eviner, O Godoy, SE Hobbie, et al 2008 Plant species traits are the predominant control on litter decomposition rates within biomes worldwide. Ecol Lett 11:1065-1071.
43. Crane PR, S Lidgard 1989 Angiosperm diversification and paleolatitudinal gradients in Cretaceous floristic diversity. Science 246: 675-678.
44. Crisp MD, MTK Arroyo, LG Cook, MA Gandolfo, GJ Jordan, MS McGlone, PH Weston, M Westoby, P Wilf, HP Linder 2009 Phylogenetic biome conservatism on a global scale. Nature 458:754-756.
45. Crisp MD, GE Burrows, LG Cook, AH Thornhill, DMJS Bowman 2011 Flammable biomes dominated by eucalypts originated at the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary. Nat Commun 2:193, doi:10.1038/ncomms1191.
46. D'Antonio CM, PM Vitousek 1992 Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 23:63-87.
47. Davis CC, CO Webb, KJ Wurdack, CA Jaramillo, MJ Donoghue 2005 Explosive radiation of Malpighiales supports a MidCretaceous origin of modern tropical rain forests. Am Nat 165: E36-E65.
48. Diessel CFK 2010 The stratigraphic distribution of inertinite. Int J Coal Geol 81:251-268.
49. Edwards EJ, CP Osborne, CAE Stromberg, SA Smith, and the C4 Grasses Consortium 2010 The origins of C4 grasslands: integrating evolutionary and ecosystem science. Science 328:587-591.
50. Ehleringer JR, TE Cerling, BR Helliker 1997 C4 photosynthesis, atmospheric CO2, and climate. Oecologia 112:285-299.
51. Eklund H 2003 First Cretaceous flowers from Antarctica. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 127:187-217.
52. Eriksson O 2008 Evolution of seed size and biotic seed dispersal in angiosperms: paleoecological and neoecological evidence. Int J Plant Sci 169:863-870.
53. Falcon-Lang HJ 2000 Fire ecology of the Carboniferous tropical zone. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 164:339-355.
54. Falkowski PG, ME Katz, AJ Milligan, K Fennel, BS Cramer, MP Aubry, RA Berner, MJ Novacek, WM Zapol 2005 The rise of oxygen over the past 205 million years and the evolution of large placental mammals. Science 309:2202-2204.
55. Falseter DS, M Westoby 2003 Plant height and evolutionary games. Trends Ecol Evol 18:337-343.
56. Feild TS, NC Arens 2005 Form, function and environments of the early angiosperms: merging extant phylogeny and ecophysiology with fossils. New Phytol 166:383-408.
57. Feild TS, TJ Brodribb, A Iglesias, DS Chatelet, A Baresch, GR Upchurch Jr, B Gomez, et al 2011 Fossil evidence for Cretaceous escalation in angiosperm leaf vein evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:8363-8366.
58. Feild TS, DS Chatelet, TJ Brodribb 2009 Ancestral xerophobia: a hypothesis on the whole plant ecophysiology of early angiosperms. Geobiology 7:237-264.
59. Finkelstein DB, LM Pratt, TM Curtin, SC Brassell 2005 Wildfires and seasonal aridity recorded in Late Cretaceous strata from southeastern Arizona, USA. Sedimentology 52:587-599.
60. Flematti GR, EL Ghisalberti, KW Dixon, RD Trengove 2004 A compound from smoke that promotes seed germination. Science 305:977.
61. Friis EM, PR Crane, KR Pedersen 2011 Early flowers and angiosperm evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
62. Friis EM, KR Pedersen, PR Crane 2006 Cretaceous angiosperm flowers: innovation and evolution in plant reproduction. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 232:251-293.
63. Gill AM 1975 Fire and the Australian flora: a review. Aust For 38:4-25.
64. Gill AM, G Allan 2008 Large fires, fire effects and the fire-regime concept. Int J Wildl Fire 17:688-695.
65. Glasspool IJ, AC Scott 2010 Phanerozoic concentrations of atmospheric oxygen reconstructed from sedimentary charcoal. Nat Geosci 3:627-630.
66. Gliessman SR 1978 The establishment of bracken following fire in tropical habitats. Am Fern J 68:41-44.
67. González ME, TT Veblen, JS Sibold 2010 Influence of fire severity on stand development of Araucaria araucana-Nothofagus pumilio stands in the Andean cordillera of south-central Chile. Austral Ecol 35:597-615.
68. Grobbelaar NJ, JM Meyer, J Burchmore 1989 Coning and sex ratio of Encephalartos transvenosus at the Modjadji Nature Reserve. S Afr J Bot 55:79-82.
69. Hallé F, AA Oldemann, PB Tomlinson 1978 Tropical trees and forests: an architectural analysis. Springer, Heidelberg.
70. Harris TM 1958 Forest fire in the Mesozoic. J Ecol 46:447-453.
71. Harris TM 1981 Burnt ferns from the English Wealden. Proc Geol Assoc 92:47-58.
72. He T, BB Lamont, KS Downes 2011 Banksia born to burn. New Phytol 191:184-196.
73. He T, JG Pausas, CM Belcher, DW Schwilk, BB Lamont 2012 Fireadapted traits of Pinus arose in the fiery Cretaceous. New Phytol 194:751-759.
74. Hennenberg KJ, F Fischer, K Kouadio, D Goetze, B Orthmann, KE Linsenmair, F Jeltsch, S Porembski 2006 Phytomass and fire occurrence along forest-savanna transects in the Comoé National Park, Ivory Coast. J Trop Ecol 22:303-311.
75. Herring JR 1985 Charcoal fluxes into sediments of the North Pacific Ocean: the Cenozoic record of burning. Geophys Monogr 32:419-442.
76. Hickey LJ, JA Doyle 1977 Early Cretaceous fossil evidence for angiosperm evolution. Bot Rev 43:3-104.
77. Hill RS, TJ Brodribb 1999 Southern conifers in time and space. Aust J Bot 47:639-696.
78. Hirota M, M Holmgren, EH van Nes, M Scheffer 2011 Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions. Science 334:232-235.
79. Hoffmann WA 1999 Fire frequency and population dynamics of woody plants in a Neotropical savanna. Ecology 80:1354-1369.
80. Hoffmann WA, R Adasme, M Haridasan, MT de Carvalho, EL Geiger, MAB Pereira, SG Gotsch, AC Franco 2009 Tree topkill, not mortality, governs the dynamics of savanna-forest boundaries under frequent fire in central Brazil. Ecology 90:1326-1337.
81. Hoffmann WA, B Orthen, PKV do Nascimento 2003 Comparative fire ecology of tropical savanna and forest trees. Funct Ecol 17: 720-726.
82. Jackson WD 1968 Fire, air, water and earth: an elemental ecology of Tasmania. Proc Ecol Soc Aust 3:9-16.
83. Jones TP, WG Chaloner 1991 Fossil charcoal its recognition and palaeoatmospheric significance. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 97:39-50.
84. Keeley JE, WJ Bond, RA Bradstock, JG Pausas, PW Rundel 2012 Fire in Mediterranean climate ecosystems: ecology, evolution and management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
85. Keeley JE, CJ Fotheringham 2000 Role of fire in regeneration from seed. Pages 311-330 in M Fenner, ed. Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in plant communities. 2nd ed. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
86. Keeley JE, PW Rundel 2005 Fire and the Miocene expansion of C4 grasslands. Ecol Lett 8:683-690.
87. Keeley JE, PH Zedler 1998 Evolution of life histories in Pinus. Pages 219-250 in DM Richardson, ed. Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
88. Kershaw AP, JS Clark, AM Gill, D D'Costa 2002 A history of fire in Australia. Pages 3-25 in RA Bradstock, JE Williams, MA Gill, eds. Flammable Australia: the fire regimes and biodiversity of a continent. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
89. Kgope BS, WJ Bond, GF Midgley 2010 Growth responses of African savanna trees implicate atmospheric [CO2] as a driver of past and current changes in savanna tree cover. Austral Ecol 35:451-463.
90. Krawchuk MA, MA Moritz, M Parisien, J Van Dorn, K Hayhoe 2009 Global pyrogeography: the current and future distribution of wildfire. PLoS ONE 4:e5102.
91. Lamont BB, KS Downes 2011 Fire-stimulated flowering among resprouters and geophytes in Australia and South Africa. Plant Ecol 212:2111-2125.
92. Lehmann CER, SA Archibald, WA Hoffmann, WJ Bond 2011 Deciphering the distribution of the savanna biome. New Phytol 191: 197-209, doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03689.x.
93. Lenton TM, AJ Watson 2000 Redfield revisited 2. What regulates the oxygen content of the atmosphere? Glob Biogeochem Cycles 14: 249-268.
94. Lewis SL, J Lloyd, S Sitch, ETA Mitchard, WF Laurance 2009 Changing ecology of tropical forests: evidence and drivers. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 40:529-549, doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.39.110707.173345.
95. Light ME, MI Daws, J Van Staden 2009 Smoke-derived butenolide: towards understanding its biological effects. S Afr J Bot 75:1-7.
96. Lupia R, S Lidgard, PR Crane 1999 Comparing palynological abundance and diversity: implications for biotic replacement during the Cretaceous angiosperm radiation. Paleobiology 25:305-340.
97. McElwain JC, KJ Willis, R Lupia 2005 Cretaceous CO2 decline and the radiation and diversification of angiosperms. Pages 133-165 in JR Ehleringer, TE Cerling, MD Dearing, eds. A history of atmospheric CO2 and its effect on plants, animals, and ecosystems. Springer, New York.
98. Midgley JJ, WJ Bond, CJ Geldenhuys 1995 The ecology of southern African conifers. Pages 64-80 in NJ Enright, RS Hill, eds. Ecology of the southern conifers. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
99. Millar CI 1998 Early evolution of pines. Pages 69-91 in DM Richardson, ed. Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
100. Myers RL, DA Rodríguez-Trejo 2009 Fire in tropical pine ecosystems. Pages 557-605 in MA Cochrane, ed. Tropical fire ecology: climate change, land use and ecosystem dynamics. Springer-Praxis, Chichester, UK.
101. Negrón-Ortiz V, DL Gorchov 2000 Effects of fire season and postfire herbivory on the cycad Zamia pumila (Zamiaceae) in slash pine savanna, Everglades National Park, Florida. Int J Plant Sci 161: 659-669.
102. Odion DC, MA Moritz, DA DellaSala 2009 Alternative community states maintained by fire in the Klamath Mountains, USA. J Ecol 98: 96-105.
103. Osborne CP 2008 Atmosphere, ecology and evolution: what drove the Miocene expansion of C4 grasslands? J Ecol 96:35-45.
104. Owen-Smith N 1987 Pleistocene extinctions: the pivotal role of megaherbivores. Paleobiology 13:351-362.
105. Passey BH, LK Ayliffe, A Kaakinen, Z Zhang, JT Eronen, Y Zhu, L Zhou, TE Cerling, M Fortelius 2009 Strengthened East Asian summer monsoons during a period of high-latitude warmth? isotopic evidence from Mio-Pliocene fossil mammals and soil carbonates from northern China. Earth Planet Sci Lett 277:443-452.
106. Pate JS 1993 Biology of the S.W. Australian cycad Macrozamia riedlei (Fisch. ex Gaudich). Pages 125-130 in DW Stevenson, KJ Knorstog, eds. The biology, structure, and systematics of the cycadales. Palm and Cycad Societies of Australia, Milton.
107. Pausas JG, RA Bradstock, DA Keith, JE Keeley and the GCTE (Global Change of Terrestrial Ecosystems) Fire Network 2004 Plant functional traits in relation to fire in crown-fire ecosystems. Ecology 85:1085-1100.
108. Pausas JG, JE Keeley 2009 A burning story: the role of fire in the history of life. BioScience 59:593-601.
109. Petraitis PS, RE Latham 1999 The importance of scale in testing the origins of alternative community states. Ecology 80:429-442.
110. Poorter H, U Niinemets, L Poorter, IJ Wright, R Villar 2009 Causes and consequences of variation in leaf mass per area (LMA): a metaanalysis. New Phytol 182:565-588.
111. Power JJ, J Marlon, N Ortiz, PJ Bartlein, SP Harrison, FE Mayle, A Ballouche, et al 2008 Changes in fire regimes since the Last Glacial Maximum: an assessment based on a global synthesis and analysis of charcoal data. Clim Dynam 30:887-907.
112. Prentice IC, SP Harrison 2009 Ecosystem effects of CO2 concentration: evidence from past climates. Clim Past 5:297-307.
113. Prentice IC, SP Harrison, PJ Bartlein 2011 Global vegetation and terrestrial carbon cycle changes after the last ice age. New Phytol 189:988-998.
114. Ramírez SR, B Gravendeel, RB Singer, CR Marshall, NE Pierce 2007 Dating the origin of the Orchidaceae from a fossil orchid with its pollinator. Nature 448:1042-1045.
115. Ratajczak Z, JB Nippert, JC Hartman, TW Ocheltree 2011 Positive feedbacks amplify rates of woody encroachment in mesic tallgrass prairie. Ecosphere 2:121, doi:10.1890/ES11-00212.1.
116. Robinson JM 1989 Phanerozoic O2 variation, fire, and terrestrial ecology. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 75:223-240.
117. Robinson JM 1994 Speculations on carbon-dioxide starvation, late Tertiary evolution of stomatal regulation and floristic modernization. Plant Cell Environ 17:345-354.
118. Royer DL, RA Berner, J Park 2007 Climate sensitivity constrained by CO2 concentrations over the past 420 million years. Nature 446: 530-532.
119. Royer DL, IM Miller, DJ Peppe, LJ Hickey 2010 Leaf economic traits from fossils support a weedy habit for early angiosperms. Am J Bot 97:438-445.
120. Royo AA, WP Carson 2006 On the formation of dense understory layers in forests worldwide: consequences and implications for forest dynamics, biodiversity, and succession. Can J For Res 36: 1345-1362.
121. Sage RF 2004 The evolution of C4 photosynthesis. New Phytol 161: 341-370.
122. Sander PM, A Christian, M Clauss, R Fechner, CT Gee, E-M Griebeler, H-C Gunga, et al 2011 Biology of the sauropod dinosaurs: the evolution of gigantism. Biol Rev 86:117-155.
123. Scheffer M, SR Carpenter 2003 Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: linking theory to observation. Trends Ecol Evol 18:648-656.
124. Schneider H, E Schuettpelz, KM Pryer, R Cranfill, S Magallon, R Lupia 2004 Ferns diversified in the shadow of angiosperms. Nature 428:553-557.
125. Schonenberger J 2005 Rise from the ashes: the reconstruction of charcoal fossil flowers. Trends Plant Sci 10:436-443.
126. Schuettpelz E, KM Pryer 2009 Evidence for a Cenozoic radiation of ferns in an angiosperm-dominated canopy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:11200-11205.
127. Scott AC 2000 The pre-Quaternary history of fire. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 164:281-329.
128. Scott AC 2010 Charcoal recognition, taphonomy and uses in palaeoenvironmental analysis. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 291:11-39.
129. Scott AC, J Cripps, G Nichols, ME Collinson 2000 The taphonomy of charcoal following a recent heathland fire and some implications for the interpretation of fossil charcoal deposits. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 164:1-31.
130. Scott AC, I Glasspool 2006 The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuation in atmospheric oxygen concentration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:10861-10865.
131. Simon MF, R Grether, LP de Queiroz, C Skema, RT Pennington, CE Hughes 2009 Recent assembly of the Cerrado, a Neotropical plant diversity hotspot, by in situ evolution of adaptations to fire. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:20359-20364.
132. Staver AC, S Archibald, SA Levin 2011a The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome staes. Science 334:230-232.
133. Staver AC, S Archibald, SA Levin 2011b Tree cover in sub-Saharan Africa: rainfall and fire constrain forest and savanna as alternative stable states. Ecology 92: 1063-1072.
134. Stromberg CAE 2005 Decoupled taxonomic radiation and ecological expansion of open-habitat grasses in the Cenozoic of North America. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:11980-11984.
135. Stromberg CAE, FA McInerney 2011 The Neogene transition from C3 to C4 grasslands in North America: assemblage analysis of fossil phytoliths. Paleobiology 37:50-71.
136. Taylor DW, LJ Hickey 1996 Evidence for and implications of an herbaceous origin for angiosperms. Pages 232-266 in DW Taylor, LJ Hickey, eds. Flowering plant origin, evolution and phylogeny. Chapman & Hall, New York.
137. Tiffney BH 1984 Seed size, dispersal syndromes, and the rise of the angiosperms: evidence and hypothesis. Ann Mo Bot Gard 71:551-576.
138. Tomlinson PB 1983 Tree architecture: new approaches help to define the elusive biological property of tree form. Am Sci 71:141-149.
139. Upchurch GR, JA Wolfe 1987 Mid-Cretaceous to Early Tertiary vegetation and climate: evidence from fossil leaves and wood. Pages 75-105 in EM Friis, WG Chaloner, PR Crane, eds. The origins of angiosperms and their biological consequences. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
140. Upchurch GR, JA Wolfe 1993 Cretaceous vegetation of the western interior and adjacent regions of North America. Pages 243-281 in EG Kauffman, WGE Caldwell, eds. Evolution of the western interior basin. Special Paper 39. Geological Association of Canada, St. John's, Newfoundland.
141. VanderWeide BL, DC Hartnett 2011 Fire resistance of tree species explains historical gallery forest community composition. For Ecol Manag 261:1530-1538.
142. van Wilgen BW, KB Higgins, DU Bellstedt 1990 The role of vegetation structure and fuel chemistry in excluding fire from forest patches in the fire-prone fynbos shrublands of South Africa. J Ecol 78:210-222.
143. Verdú M 2002 Age at maturity and diversification in woody angiosperms. Evolution 56:1352-1361.
144. Virah-Sawmy M, L Gillson, KJ Willis 2009 How does spatial heterogeneity influence resilience to climatic change? Ecological dynamics in southeast Madagascar. Ecol Monogr 79:557-574.
145. Warman L, AT Moles 2009 Alternative stable states in Australia's wet tropics: a theoretical framework for the field data and a fieldcase for the theory. Landsc Ecol 24:1-13.
146. Wheeler EA, P Baas 1991 A survey of the fossil record for dicotyledonous wood and its significance for evolutionary and ecological wood anatomy. IAWA Bull, NS, 12:275-332.
147. Whitlock C, PE Higuera, DB McWethy, CE Briles 2010 Paleoecological perspective on fire ecology: revisiting the fire regime concept. Open Ecol J 3:6-23.
148. Whittaker RH 1975 Communities and ecosystems. 2nd ed. Collier MacMillan, London.
149. Wigley BJ, WJ Bond, MT Hoffman 2010 Thicket expansion in a South African savanna under divergent land use: local vs. global drivers? Glob Change Biol 16:964-976.
150. Wildman RA, LJ Hickey, MB Dickinson, RA Berner, JM Robinson, M Dietrich, RH Essenhigh, CB Wildman 2004 Burning of forest materials under late Paleozoic high atmospheric oxygen levels. Geology 32:457-460.
151. Willis KJ, JC McElwain 2002 The evolution of plants. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
152. Wilson J B, ADQ Agnew 1992 Positive-feedback switches in plant communities. Adv Ecol Res 23:263-336.
153. Wing SL, LD Boucher 1998 Ecological aspects of the Cretaceous flowering plant radiation. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 26: 379421.
154. Wing SL, F Herrera, CA Jaramillo, C Gómez-Navarro, P Wilf, CC Labandeira 2009 Late Paleocene fossils from the Cerrejón Formation, Colombia, are the earliest record of Neotropical rainforest. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:18627-18632.
155. Wolfe JA 1985 Distribution of major vegetation types during the Tertiary. Geophys Monogr 32:357-375.