Bleeding risks of herbal, homeopathic, and dietary supplements: A hidden nightmare for plastic surgeons?

Aesthetic Surgery Journal

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 332-346

  Wong, Wendy W ^a   Gabriel, Allen ^a   Maxwell, G Patrick ^a   Gupta, Subhas C ^a  

^a LOMA LINDA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

bleeding; hematomas; herbal remedies; herbal teas; homeopathic medicines; patient safety; plastic surgery

Indexed keywords

AGRIMONIA PILOSA EXTRACT; BROMELAIN; CAPSAICIN; CHONDROITIN; GARLIC EXTRACT; GINGER EXTRACT; GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; GLYCYRRHIZA EXTRACT; HARPAGOPHYTUM PROCUMBENS EXTRACT; ICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID; LONICERA JAPONICA EXTRACT; PAEONIA RADIX; PAEONIAE RUBRA EXTRACT; SALICYLIC ACID METHYL ESTER; SALVIA MILTIORRHIZA EXTRACT; SCUTELLARIA BAICALENSIS EXTRACT; TANACETUM PARTHENIUM EXTRACT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; BLEEDING; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; ESTHETIC SURGERY; GARLIC; GINGER; GINKGO BILOBA; GLYCYRRHIZA; HARPAGOPHYTUM; HARPAGOPHYTUM PROCUMBEN; HEALTH CARE UTILIZATION; HEMATOMA; HOMEOPATHY; HUMAN; LONICERA JAPONICA; PATIENT SAFETY; PERIOPERATIVE PERIOD; PLASTIC SURGEON; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; PRESCRIPTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SALVIA MILTIORRHIZA; SCUTELLARIA BAICALENSIS; TANACETUM PARTHENIUM; TRIFOLIATE ORANGE;

ANIMALS; BLOOD LOSS, SURGICAL; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; HEMORRHAGE; HOMEOPATHY; HUMANS; PATIENT EDUCATION AS TOPIC; PHYTOTHERAPY; PLANT EXTRACTS; POSTOPERATIVE HEMORRHAGE; RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGICAL PROCEDURES;

EID: 84863253359     PISSN: 1090820X     EISSN: 1527330X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1090820X12438913     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. Eisenberg DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL, et al. Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990-1997: results of a follow-up national survey. JAMA 1998;280:1569-1575. (Pubitemid 28520643)
2. Leak JA. Herbal medicine: is it an alternative or an unknown? A brief review of popular herbals used by patients in a pain and symptom management practice setting. Curr Rev Pain 1999;3:226-236.
3. Heller J, Gabbay JS, Ghadjar K, et al. Top-10 list of herbal and supplemental medicines used by cosmetic patients: what the plastic surgeon needs to know. Plast Reconstr Surg 2006;117:436-445. (Pubitemid 44400628)
4. Gershwin ME, Borchers AT, Keen CL, et al. Public safety and dietary supplementation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1190: 104-117.
5. Pribitkin ED, Boger G. Herbal therapy: what every facial plastic surgeon must know. Arch Facial Plast Surg 2001;3:127-132.
6. Cheng TO. Ginseng and other herbal medicines that interact with warfarin. Int J Cardiol 2005;104:227. (Pubitemid 41316994)
7. Rowe DJ, Baker AC. Perioperative risks and benefits of herbal supplements in aesthetic surgery. Aesthet Surg J 2009;29:150-157.
8. Chin SH, Cristofaro J, Aston SJ. Perioperative management of antidepressants and herbal medications in elective plastic surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg 2009;123:377-386.
9. Rosenblatt M, Mindel J. Spontaneous hyphema associated with ingestion of Ginkgo biloba extract. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1108. (Pubitemid 27163872)
10. Rowin J, Lewis SL. Spontaneous bilateral subdural hematomas associated with chronic Ginkgo biloba ingestion. Neurology 1996;46:1775-1776.
11. Vale S. Subarachnoid haemorrhage associated with Ginkgo biloba. Lancet 1998;352:36. (Pubitemid 28306571)
12. Ye F, Che Y, McMillen E, et al. The effect of Scutellaria baicalensis on the signaling network in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Nutr Cancer 2009;61:530-537.
13. Swain L. Skullcap. CBS Money Watch. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/ mi-g2603/is-0006/ai-2603000665/?tag =content;c011. Published 2001. Accessed June 5, 2010.
14. Liu XF, Liu ML, Iyanagi T, et al. Inhibition of rat liver NAD(P)H:quinone acceptor oxidoreductase (DT-diapho rase) by flavonoids isolated from the Chinese herb scutellariae radix (Huang Qin). Mol Pharmacol 1990;37: 911-915. (Pubitemid 20219902)
15. Cirelli MG, Smyth RD. Effects of bromelain anti-edema therapy on coagulation, bleeding, and prothrombin times. J New Drugs 1963;3:37-39.
16. Fitzhugh DJ, Shan S, Dewhirst MW, et al. Bromelain treatment decreases neutrophil migration to sites of inflammation. Clin Immunol 2008;128:66-74.
17. Shibayama Y. An experimental study into the cause of acute haemorrhagic gastritis in cirrhosis. J Pathol 1986;149:307-313. (Pubitemid 16050290)
18. Preparing for your surgery. http://www.facialplasticsurgery.net/ preparing-for-surgery.htm. Published 2010. Accessed June 11, 2010.
19. Hsu MF, Young JH, Wang JP, et al. Effect of hsien-ho-t'sao (Agrimonia pilosa) on experimental thrombosis in mice. Am J Chin Med 1987;15:43-51.
20. Peony. http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-32-PEONY. aspx?activeIngredientId=32 &activeIngredientName=PEONY&source=3. Published 2009. Accessed June 7, 2010.
21. Liapina LA, Novikov VS, Pastorova VE, et al. [An anticoagulant from extracts of peony roots: its isolation and properties]. Izv Akad Nauk Ser Biol 1995;249-251.
22. Wong AL, Chan TY. Interaction between warfarin and the herbal product quilinggao. Ann Pharmacother 2003;37:836-838. (Pubitemid 36618373)
23. Pittler MH, Ernst E. Feverfew for preventing migraine. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;3:CD002286.
24. Lesiak K, Koprowska K, Zalesna I, et al. Parthenolide, a sesquiterpene lactone from the medical herb feverfew, shows anticancer activity against human melanoma cells in vitro. Melanoma Res 2010;20(1):21-34.
25. Losche W, Mazurov AV, Heptinstall S, et al. An extract of feverfew inhibits interactions of human platelets with collagen substrates. Thromb Res 1987;48:511-518.
26. Heptinstall S, Groenewegen WA, Spangenberg P, et al. Extracts of feverfew may inhibit platelet behaviour via neutralization of sulphydryl groups. J Pharm Pharmacol 1987;39:459-465.
27. Baldwin CA, Anderson LA, Philipson JD. What pharmacists should know about feverfew. J Pharm Pharmacol 1987;39:459-465.
28. Yeung HC. Handbook of Chinese Herbs and Formulas. Los Angeles, CA: Institute of Chinese Medicine; 1985.
29. Xu RM, Liu HW, Lu Y, et al. [Determination of adenosine and thymidine in Fritillaria bulbs by dual wavelength ultraviolet spectrophotometry]. Yao Xue Xue Bao 1997;32:617-619.
30. Chen Z, Lu Y, Xu P, et al. [Water soluble contents of Chinese drug beimu, the bulbs of Fritillaria plants]. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 1996;21:420-422.
31. Danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza). http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ druginfo/natural/patient-danshen.html. Accessed June 5, 2010.
32. Chan TY. Interaction between warfarin and danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza). Ann Pharmacother 2001;35:501-504. (Pubitemid 32260218)
33. Zou ZW, Xu LN, Tian JY. [Antithrombotic and antiplatelet effects of rosmarinic acid, a water-soluble component isolated from radix Salviae miltiorrhizae (danshen)]. Yao Xue Xue Bao 1993;28:241-245.
34. Izzat MB, Yim AP, El-Zufari MH. A taste of Chinese medicine! Ann Thorac Surg 1998;66:941-942. (Pubitemid 28462137)
35. Chrubasik S, Pollak S, Black A. Effectiveness of devil's claw for osteoarthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2002;41:1332-1333.
36. Wegener T, Lupke NP. Treatment of patients with arthrosis of hip or knee with an aqueous extract of devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens DC.). Phytother Res 2003;17:1165-1172. (Pubitemid 38057173)
37. Devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens DC). http://www.nlm.nih.gov/ medlineplus/druginfo/natural/ patient-devilsclaw.html. Accessed June 12, 2010.
38. Bermejo Benito P, Diaz Lanza AM, Silvan Sen AM, et al. Effects of some iridoids from plant origin on arachidonic acid metabolism in cellular systems. Planta Med 2000;66:324-328.
39. Stevinson C, Pittler MH, Ernst E. Garlic for treating hypercholesterolemia: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Ann Intern Med 2000;133:420-429.
40. Silagy CA, Neil HA. A meta-analysis of the effect of garlic on blood pressure. J Hypertens 1994;12:463-468. (Pubitemid 24145400)
41. Lawson LD, Ransom DK, Hughes BG. Inhibition of whole blood platelet-aggregation by compounds in garlic clove extracts and commercial garlic products. Thromb Res 1992;65:141-156.
42. Apitz-Castro R, Escalante J, Vargas R, et al. Ajoene, the antiplatelet principle of garlic, synergistically potentiates the antiaggregatory action of prostacyclin, forskolin, indomethacin and dypiridamole on human platelets. Thromb Res 1986;42:303-311. (Pubitemid 16035630)
43. Spolarich AE, Andrews L. An examination of the bleeding complications associated with herbal supplements, antiplatelet and anticoagulant medications. J Dent Hyg 2007;81:67.
44. Makheia AN, Vanderhoek JY, Bailey JM. Inhibition of platelet aggregation and thromboxane synthesis by onion and garlic. Lancet 1979;1:781. (Pubitemid 9160677)
45. Rahman K, Billington D. Dietary supplementation with aged garlic extract inhibits ADP-induced platelet aggregation in humans. J Nutr 2000;130:2662-2665.
46. Abebe W. Herbal medication: potential for adverse interactions with analgesic drugs. J Clin Pharm Ther 2002;27:391-401. (Pubitemid 35469171)
47. Rose KD, Croissant PD, Parliament CF, et al. Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma with associated platelet dysfunction from excessive garlic ingestion: a case report. Neurosurgery 1990;26:880-882. (Pubitemid 20152635)
48. Hodges PJ, Kam PC. The peri-operative implications of herbal medicines. Anaesthesia 2002;57:889-899. (Pubitemid 35021512)
49. Rai J. Adverse interactions between low-dose aspirin/warfarin and garlic/ginseng/Ginkgo biloba. Indian Heart J 2004;56:176. (Pubitemid 39118442)
50. Vaes LP, Chyka PA. Interactions of warfarin with garlic, ginger, ginkgo, or ginseng: nature of the evidence. Ann Pharmacother 2000;34:1478-1482.
51. Burnham BE. Garlic as a possible risk for postoperative bleeding. Plast Reconstr Surg 1995;95:213.
52. Izzo AA, Ernst E. Interactions between herbal medicines and prescribed drugs: a systematic review. Drugs 2001;61:2163-2175. (Pubitemid 34074799)
53. Ang-Lee MK, Moss J, Yuan CS. Herbal medicines and perioperative care. JAMA 2001;286:208-216. (Pubitemid 32640852)
54. Li M, Yu CM, Cheng L, et al. Repair of infarcted myocardium by an extract of Geum japonicum with dual effects on angiogenesis and myogenesis. Clin Chem 2006;52:1460-1468. (Pubitemid 44148308)
55. Zeng FQ, Xu HX, Sim KY, et al. The anticoagulant effects of Geum japonicum extract and its constituents. Phytotherapy Research 1998;12:146-148.
56. Grontved A, Brask T, Kambskard J, et al. Ginger root against seasickness: a controlled trial on the open sea. Acta Otolaryngol 1988;105:45-49.
57. Holtmann S, Clarke AH, Scherer H, et al. The anti-motion sickness mechanism of ginger: a comparative study with placebo and dimenhydrinate. Acta Otolaryngol 1989;108:168-174. (Pubitemid 19240253)
58. Srivastava KC. Isolation and effects of some ginger components of platelet aggregation and eicosanoid biosynthesis. Prostaglandins Leukot Med 1986;25:187-198. (Pubitemid 17215447)
59. Backon J. Ginger: inhibition of thromboxane synthetase and stimulation of prostacyclin: relevance for medicine and psychiatry. Med Hypotheses 1986;20:271-278. (Pubitemid 16092545)
60. Nurtjahja-Tjendraputra E, Ammit AJ, Roufogalis BD, et al. Effective anti-platelet and COX-1 enzyme inhibitors from pungent constituents of ginger. Thromb Res 2003;111:259-265. (Pubitemid 38021945)
61. Blumenthal M, Gruenwald J, Hall T, et al. The Complete German Commission E Monographs. Newton, MA: Integrative Medicine Communications; 1998.
62. Crews WD, Harrison DW, Griffin ML, et al. The neuropsychological effect of ginkgo preparations in healthy and cognitively intact adults. HerbalGram 2005;67:43-62.
63. Oken BS, Storzbach DM, Kaye JA. The efficacy of Ginkgo biloba on cognitive function in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 1998;55:1409-1415. (Pubitemid 28525500)
64. Diamond BJ, Shiflett SC, Feiwel N, et al. Ginkgo biloba extract: mechanisms and clinical indications. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000;81:668-678. (Pubitemid 30257692)
65. Dutta-Roy AK, Gordon MJ, Kelly C, et al. Inhibitory effect of Ginkgo biloba extract on human platelet aggregation. Platelets 1999;10:298-305. (Pubitemid 29490856)
66. Koch E. Inhibition of platelet activating factor (PAF)-induced aggregation of human thrombocytes by ginkgolides: considerations on possible bleeding complications after oral intake of Ginkgo biloba extracts. Phytomedicine 2005;12:10-16. (Pubitemid 40174323)
67. Skidmore-Roth L. Mosby's Handbook of Herbs & Natural Supplements. 3rd ed. New York: Elsevier Mosby; 2006.
68. Heck AM, DeWitt BA, Lukes AL. Potential interactions between alternative therapies and warfarin. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2000;57:1221-1227.
69. Shaw D, Leon C, Kolev S, et al. Traditional remedies and food supplements: a 5-year toxicological study (1991-1995). Drug Saf 1997;17:342-356. (Pubitemid 27496853)
70. Walker AF. What is in ginseng? Lancet 1994;344:619.
71. Vigano C, Ceppi E. What is in ginseng? Lancet 1994;344:619.
72. Helms S. Cancer prevention and therapeutics: Panax ginseng. Altern Med Rev 2004;9:259-274. (Pubitemid 39299200)
73. Shin HR, Kim JY, Yun TK, et al. The cancer-preventive potential of Panax ginseng: a review of human and experimental evidence. Cancer Causes Control 2000;11: 565-576. (Pubitemid 30342846)
74. Teng CM, Kuo SC, Ko FN, et al. Antiplatelet actions of panaxynol and ginsenosides isolated from ginseng. Biochim Biophys Acta 1989;990:315-320.
75. Kuo SC, Teng CM, Lee JC, et al. Antiplatelet components in Panax ginseng. Planta Med 1990;56:164-167.
76. Park HJ, Lee JH, Song YB, et al. Effects of dietary supplementation of lipophilic fraction from Panax ginseng on cGMP and cAMP in rat platelets and on blood coagulation. Biol Pharm Bull 1996;19:1434-1439.
77. Lau AJ, Toh DF, Chua TK, et al. Antiplatelet and anticoagulant effects of Panax notoginseng: comparison of raw and steamed Panax notoginseng with Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolium. J Ethnopharmacol 2009;125:380-386.
78. Hopkins MP, Androff L, Benninghoff AS. Ginseng face cream and unexplained vaginal bleeding. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;159:1121-1122. (Pubitemid 19002435)
79. Jones BD, Runikis AM. Interaction of ginseng with phenelzine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1987;7:201-202.
80. Coon JT, Ernst E. Panax ginseng: a systematic review of adverse effects and drug interactions. Drug Saf 2002;25:323-344. (Pubitemid 34634271)
81. Hammond TG, Whitworth JA. Adverse reactions to ginseng. Med J Aust 1981;1:492. (Pubitemid 11059553)
82. Chang WC, Hsu FL. Inhibition of platelet activation and endothelial cell injury by polyphenolic compounds isolated from Lonicera japonica Thunb. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1992;45:307-312.
83. Park SY, Lim SS, Kim JK, et al. Hexane-ethanol extract of Glycyrrhiza uralensis containing licoricidin inhibits the metastatic capacity of DU145 human prostate cancer cells. Br J Nutr 2010;104(9):1272-1282.
84. Kim KR, Jeong CK, Park KK, et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of licorice and roasted licorice extracts on TPA-induced acute inflammation and collagen-induced arthritis in mice. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010;2010:709378.
85. Malekinejad H, Farshid AA, Mirzakhani N. Liquorice plant extract reduces ochratoxin A-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Exp Toxicol Pathol 2011;63(1-2):125-130.
86. Ferrari P. Licorice: a sweet alternative to prevent hyperkalemia in dialysis patients? Kidney Int 2009;76:811-812.
87. Halder RM, Richards GM. Topical agents used in the management of hyperpigmentation. Skin Therapy Lett 2004;9:1-3.
88. Pant P, Nadimpalli L, Singh M, et al. A case of severe hypokalemic paralysis and hypertension: licorice-induced hypokalemic paralysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2010;55(6):A35-A37.
89. Templin C, Westhoff-Bleck M, Ghadri JR. Hypokalemic paralysis with rhabdomyolysis and arterial hypertension caused by liquorice ingestion. Clin Res Cardiol 2009;98:130-132.
90. Cataldo F, Di Stefano P, Violante M, et al. [Pseudohyperaldosteronism secondary to licorice poisoning associated with hemorrhagic gastritis]. Pediatr Med Chir 1997;19:219-221.
91. Tanen DA, Danish DC, Reardon JM, et al. Comparison of oral aspirin versus topical applied methyl salicylate for platelet inhibition. Ann Pharmacother 2008;42:1396-1401.
92. Joss JD, LeBlond RF. Potentiation of warfarin anticoagulation associated with topical methyl salicylate. Ann Pharmacother 2000;34:729-733. (Pubitemid 30395771)
93. Johnson PN, Welch DW. Methyl salicylate/aspirin (salicylate) equivalence: who do you trust? Vet Hum Toxicol 1984;26:317-318. (Pubitemid 14069540)
94. Teng CM, Li HL, Wu TS, et al. Antiplatelet actions of some coumarin compounds isolated from plant sources. Thromb Res 1992;66:549-557.
95. Derry S, Lloyd R, Moore RA, et al. Topical capsaicin for chronic neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;4:CD007393.
96. Cameron M, Gagnier JJ, Little CV, et al. Evidence of effectiveness of herbal medicinal products in the treatment of arthritis: part 2. Rheumatoid arthritis. Phytother Res 2009;23:1647-1662.
97. Soeken KL. Selected CAM therapies for arthritis-related pain: the evidence from systematic reviews. Clin J Pain 2004;20:13-18. (Pubitemid 38030114)
98. Makhlough A. Topical capsaicin therapy for uremic pruritus in patients on hemodialysis. Iran J Kidney Dis 4:137-140.
99. Lippe IT, Sametz W, Sabin K, et al. Inhibitory role of capsaicin-sensitive afferent neurons and nitric oxide in hemostasis. Am J Physiol 1993;265:H1864-H1868.
100. Holzer P, Pabst MA, Lippe IT. Intragastric capsaicin protects against aspirin-induced lesion formation and bleeding in the rat gastric mucosa. Gastroenterology 1989;96:1425-1433. (Pubitemid 19138682)
101. Cheema P, El-Mefty O, Jazieh AR. Intraoperative haemorrhage associated with the use of extract of saw palmetto herb: a case report and review of literature. J Intern Med 2001;250:167-169. (Pubitemid 32868697)
102. Kaye AD, Kucera I, Sabar R. Perioperative anesthesia clinical considerations of alternative medicines. Anesthesiol Clin North America 2004;22:125-139. (Pubitemid 38510393)
103. Gou YL, Ho AL, Rowlands DK, et al. Effects of Bak Foong Pill on blood coagulation and platelet aggregation. Biol Pharm Bull 2003;26:241-246. (Pubitemid 41699672)
104. Makino T, Wakushima H, Okamoto T, et al. Effects of Kangen-karyu on coagulation system and platelet aggregation in mice. Biol Pharm Bull 2002;25:523-525. (Pubitemid 40036747)
105. Makino T, Wakushima H, Okamoto T, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between warfarin and kangenkaryu, a Chinese traditional herbal medicine, and their synergistic action. J Ethnopharmacol 2002;82:35-40.
106. Makino T, Wakushima H, Okamoto T, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacological interactions between ticlopidine hydrochloride and Kangen-Karyu: Chinese traditional herbal medicine. Phytother Res 2003;17:1021-1024. (Pubitemid 37351573)
107. Hogan RP 3rd. Hemorrhagic diathesis caused by drinking an herbal tea. JAMA 1983;249:2679-2680.
108. Rivera JO, Gonzalez-Stuart A, McLean S, et al. Profound hemorrhage in a patient taking herbal products. Am Surg 2009;75:346-347.
109. Riley D. Arnica montana and homeopathic dosing guidelines. Plast Reconstr Surg 2003;112:693. (Pubitemid 36951480)
110. Schroder H, Losche W, Strobach H, et al. Helenalin and 11 alpha,13-dihydrohelenalin, two constituents from Arnica montana L., inhibit human platelet function via thiol-dependent pathways. Thromb Res 1990;57:839-845. (Pubitemid 20148999)
111. Ramelet AA, Buchheim G, Lorenz P, et al. Homeopathic Arnica in postoperative haematomas: a double-blind study. Dermatology 2000;201:347-348. (Pubitemid 32037564)
112. Lee YH, Woo JH, Choi SJ, et al. Effect of glucosamine or chondroitin sulfate on the osteoarthritis progression: a meta-analysis. Rheumatol Int 30:357-363.
113. Bruyere O, Reginster JY. Glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate as therapeutic agents for knee and hip osteoarthritis. Drugs Aging 2007;24:573-580. (Pubitemid 47195676)
114. Lu-Suguro JF, Hua J, Sakamoto K, et al. Inhibitory action of glucosamine on platelet activation in guinea pigs. Inflamm Res 2005;54:493-499. (Pubitemid 43042236)
115. Tamura Y, Hirai A, Terano T, et al. [Anti-thrombotic and anti-atherogenic action of eicosapentaenoic acid]. Nippon Rinsho 1992;50:403-407.
116. Schmidt EB, Varming K, Ernst E, et al. Dose-response studies on the effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on lipids and haemostasis. Thromb Haemost 1990;63:1-5. (Pubitemid 20057303)
117. Marsh SA, Coombes JS. Vitamin E and alpha-lipoic acid supplementation increase bleeding tendency via an intrinsic coagulation pathway. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2006;12:169-173. (Pubitemid 44400858)
118. Williams JC, Forster LA, Tull SP, et al. Dietary vitamin E supplementation inhibits thrombin-induced platelet aggregation, but not monocyte adhesiveness, in patients with hypercholesterolaemia. Int J Exp Pathol 1997;78:259-266. (Pubitemid 27408021)
119. Duttaroy AK, Jorgensen A. Effects of kiwi fruit consumption on platelet aggregation and plasma lipids in healthy human volunteers. Platelets 2004;15:287-292. (Pubitemid 39037130)
120. Dereska NH, McLemore EC, Tessier DJ, et al. Short-term, moderate dosage vitamin E supplementation may have no effect on platelet aggregation, coagulation profile, and bleeding time in healthy individuals. J Surg Res 2006;132:121-129.
121. Winslow LC, Kroll DJ. Herbs as medicines. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:2192-2199. (Pubitemid 28512493)
122. Eisenberg DM, Kessler RC, Foster C, et al. Unconventional medicine in the United States: prevalence, costs, and patterns of use. N Engl J Med 1993;328:246-252. (Pubitemid 23035311)
123. Ko RJ. Causes, epidemiology, and clinical evaluation of suspected herbal poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1999;37:697-708.
124. Leak JA. Herbal medicines: what do we need to know? Internet J Anesthesiol 2000;4(3).
125. Samuels N. Herbal remedies and anticoagulant therapy. Thromb Haemost 2005;93:3-7. (Pubitemid 40124247)
126. Teranishi K, Apitz-Castro R, Robson SC, et al. Inhibition of baboon platelet aggregation in vitro and in vivo by the garlic derivative, ajoene. Xenotransplantation 2003;10:374-379. (Pubitemid 36903778)
127. Legnani C, Frascaro M, Guazzaloca G, et al. Effects of a dried garlic preparation on fibrinolysis and platelet aggregation in healthy subjects. Arzneimittelforschung 1993;43:119-122. (Pubitemid 23060784)
128. Srivastava KC. Aqueous extracts of onion, garlic and ginger inhibit platelet aggregation and alter arachidonic acid metabolism. Biomed Biochim Acta 1984;43:S335-S346. (Pubitemid 15183770)
129. Verma SK, Singh J, Khamesra R, et al. Effect of ginger on platelet aggregation in man. Indian J Med Res 1993;98:240-242. (Pubitemid 24074313)
130. Fessenden JM, Wittenborn W, Clarke L. Gingko biloba: a case report of herbal medicine and bleeding postoperatively from a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Am Surg 2001;67(1):33-35. (Pubitemid 33638490)
131. Adams MJ, Ahuja KD, Geraghty DP. Effect of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin on in vitro blood coagulation and platelet aggregation. Thromb Res 2009;124:721-723.
132. Wang JP, Hsu MF, Hsu TP, et al. Antihemostatic and antithrombotic effects of capsaicin in comparison with aspirin and indomethacin. Thromb Res 1985;37:669-679.
133. Villanueva S, Gonzalez J. Coagulopathy induced by saw palmetto: a case report. Bol Asoc Med P R 2009;101:48-50.
134. Yip AS, Chow WH, Tai YT, et al. Adverse effect of topical methylsalicylate ointment on warfarin anticoagulation: an unrecognized potential hazard. Postgrad Med J 1990;66:367-369. (Pubitemid 20148880)
135. Anauate MC, Torres LM, de Mello SB. Effect of isolated fractions of Harpagophytum procumbens DC (devil's claw) on COX-1, COX-2 activity and nitric oxide production on whole-blood assay. Phytother Res 24:1365-1369.
136. Dong H, Chen SX, Kini RM, et al. Effects of tannins from Geum japonicum on the catalytic activity of thrombin and factor Xa.
137. Helson L. The effect of intravenous vitamin E and menadiol sodium diphosphate on vitamin K dependent clotting factors. Thromb Res 1984;35:11-18. (Pubitemid 14085622)
138. Bakaltcheva I, Gyimah D, Reid T. Effects of alphatocopherol on platelets and the coagulation system. Platelets 2001;12:389-394. (Pubitemid 33097232)
139. Phang M, Sinclair AJ, Lincz LF, et al. Gender-specific inhibition of platelet aggregation following omega-3 fatty acid supplementation [published online ahead of print August 11, 2010]. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.
140. Knudsen JF, Sokol GH. Potential glucosamine-warfarin interaction resulting in increased international normalized ratio: case report and review of the literature and MedWatch database. Pharmacotherapy 2008;28:540-548. (Pubitemid 351466466)
141. Peony (Paeonia lactiflora Pall., Paeonia officinalis L., Paeonia suffruticosa Andr.). http://www.healthline.com/natstandardcontent/peony#H7. Accessed December 13, 2011.
142. Gilman AG, Rall TW, Nies AS, et al. Goodman and Gilman's the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 8th ed. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press; 1990.
143. Ginger extract (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). http://www.healthline.com/ natstandardcontent/ginger#H7. Accessed December 13, 2011.
144. Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba L.). http://www.healthline.com/natstandardcontent/ ginkgo#H6. Accessed December 13, 2011.
145. Ginseng (American ginseng, Asian ginseng, Chinese ginseng, Korean red ginseng, Panax ginseng: Panax spp. including P. ginseng C.C. Meyer and P. quinquefolius L., excluding Eleutherococcus senticosus). http://www.healthline. com/natstandardcontent/ginseng#H1. Accessed December 13, 2011.
146. Howrie DL, Moriarty M, Breit R. Candy flavoring as a source of salicylate poisoning. Pediatrics 1985;75:869-871. (Pubitemid 15054315)
147. Dreisbach R, Robertson W. Handbook of Poisoning. 12th ed. Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange; 1987.