North American CO2 exchange: Inter-comparison of modeled estimates with results from a fine-scale atmospheric inversion

Biogeosciences

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 457-475

  Gourdji, S M ^a,f   Mueller, K L ^a,g   Yadav, V ^a,h   Huntzinger, D N ^a,i   Andrews, A E ^b   Trudeau, M ^b   Petron, G ^b   Nehrkorn, T ^c   Eluszkiewicz, J ^c   Henderson, J ^c   Wen, D ^d   Lin, J ^d   Fischer, M ^e   Sweeney, C ^b   Michalak, A M ^a,h  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b EARTH SYSTEM RESEARCH LABORATORY   (United States)

^c ATMOSPHERIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

^e LAWRENCE BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^f STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^g AAAS   (United States)

^h GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY   (United States)

ⁱ NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL LAND; ATMOSPHERIC MODELING; BIOMASS; BIOSPHERE; BOTTOM-UP APPROACH; BOUNDARY CONDITION; CARBON BUDGET; CARBON CYCLE; CARBON DIOXIDE; CARBON FLUX; ERROR ANALYSIS; FOSSIL FUEL; INVERSE ANALYSIS; LAND MANAGEMENT; MIXING RATIO; NUMERICAL MODEL; REGIONAL PATTERN; SPATIOTEMPORAL ANALYSIS; TOP-DOWN APPROACH;

NORTH AMERICA;

EID: 84863066520     PISSN: 17264170     EISSN: 17264189     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/bg-9-457-2012     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. Ahmadov, R., Gerbig, C., Kretschmer, R., Körner, S., Rödenbeck, C., Bousquet, P., and Ramonet, M.: Comparing high resolution WRF-VPRM simulations and two global CO2 transport models with coastal tower measurements of CO2, Biogeosciences, 6, 807-817, doi:10.5194/bg-6-807-2009, 2009.
2. Anderson, M. C., Kustas, W. P., and Norman, J. M.: Upscaling and downscaling, a regional view of the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum, Agron. J., 95:, 1408-1423, 2003. (Pubitemid 37515001)
3. Andres, R. J., Marland, G., Fung, I., and Matthews, E.: A 1×1 distribution of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel consumption and cement manufacture, 1950-1990, Global Bio-geochem. Cy., 10, 419-430, doi:10.1029/96GB01523, 1996.
4. 2 fluxes 1988-2003, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 20, GB1002, doi:10.1029/2004GB002439, 2006.
5. Bakwin, P. S., Tans, P. P., Hurst, D., and Zhao, C.: Measurements of carbon dioxide on very tall towers: Results of the NOAA/CMDL program, Tellus, 50B, 401-415, 1998. (Pubitemid 29223831)
6. Baldocchi, D.: Breathing of the terrestrial biosphere: lessons learned from a global network of carbon dioxide flux measurement systems, Austr. J. Botany, 56, 1-26, 2008. (Pubitemid 351214512)
7. Beer, C., Reichstein, M., Ciais, P., Farquhar, G. D., and Papale, D.: Mean annual GPP of Europe derived from its water balance, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L05401, doi:10.1029/2006GL029006, 2007. (Pubitemid 46864506)
8. Bonan, G.: Ecological Climatology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2nd ed., 2008.
9. Bukovsky, M. S. and Karoly, D. J.: A brief evaluation of precipitation from the North American Regional Reanalysis, J. Hydrom-eteor., 8, 837-846, 2007. (Pubitemid 47491204)
10. Butler, M. P., Davis, K. J., Denning, A. S., and Kawa, S. R.: Using continental observations in global atmospheric inversions of CO2: North American carbon sources and sinks, Tellus, 62B, 550-572, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.2010. 00501.x, 2010.
11. Cadule, P., Friedlingstein, P., Bopp, L., Sitch, S., Jones, C. D., Ciais, P., Piao, S. L., and Peylin, P.: Benchmarking coupled climate-carbon models against long-term atmospheric CO2 measurements, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 24, GB2016, doi:10.1029/2009GB003556, 2010.
12. Cairns, M. A., Haggerty, P. K., Alvarez, R., de Jong, B. H. J., and Olmsted, I.: Tropical Mexico's recent land-use change: a region's contribution to the global carbon cycle, Ecol. App., 10, 1426-1441, doi:10.2307/2641296, 2000. (Pubitemid 32140008)
13. Canadian Greenhouse Gas Measurement Network, available at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/mges-ghgm/Default.asp?lang=En\&n= C5F1AC14-1, last access: 2 June 2011.
14. Canadian Wind Energy Atlas, available at: http://www.windatlas. ca/en/index.php, last access: 2 June 2011.
15. CarboEurope Atmosphere Database, available at: http://ce-atmosphere.lsce. ipsl.fr/database/index database.html, last access: 2 June 2011.
16. Carouge, C., Bousquet, P., Peylin, P., Rayner, P. J., and Ciais, P.: What can we learn from European continuous atmospheric CO2 measurements to quantify regional fluxes-Part 1: Potential of the 2001 network, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3107-3117, doi:10.5194/acp-10-3107-2010, 2010a.
17. Carouge, C., Rayner, P. J., Peylin, P., Bousquet, P., Chevallier, F., and Ciais, P.: What can we learn from European continuous atmospheric CO2 measurements to quantify regional fluxes-Part 2: Sensitivity of flux accuracy to inverse setup, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3119-3129, doi:10.5194/acp-10-3119-2010, 2010b.
18. Chen, S. H. and Sun, W. Y.: A one-dimensional time dependent cloud model, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 80, 99-118, 2002.
19. Chevallier, F., Ciais, P., Conway, T. J., Aalto, T., Anderson, B. E., Bousquet, P., Brunke, E. G., Ciattaglia, L., Esaki, Y., Frohlich, M., Gomez, A., Gomez-Pelaez, A. J., Haszpra, L., Krummel, P. B., Langenfelds, R. L., Leuenberger, M., Machida, T., Maignan, F., Matsueda, H., Morgui, J. A., Mukai, H., Nakazawa, T., Peylin, P., Ramonet, M., Rivier, L., Sawa, Y., Schmidt, M., Steele, L. P., Vay, S. A., Vermeulen, A. T., Wofsy, S., and Worthy, D.: CO2 surface fluxes at grid point scale estimated from a global 21 year reanalysis of atmospheric measurements, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, D21307, doi:10.1029/2010JD013887, 2010.
20. Chou, M. D. and Suarez, M.: An efficient thermal infrared radiation parameterization for use in general circulation models, Tech Memo 104606, NASA, Washington, DC, 1994.
21. Climate Change Science Program: The First State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR): The North American Carbon Budget and Implications for the Global Carbon Cycle. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research, edited by: King, A. W., Dilling, L., Zimmerman, G. P., Fairman, D. M., Houghton, R. A., Mar-land, G., Rose, A. Z., and Wilbanks, T. J.: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, USA, 242 pp., 2007.
22. Corbin, K. D., Denning, A. S., Lokupitiya, E. Y., Schuh, A. E., Miles, N. L., Davis, K. J., Richardson, S., and Baker, I. T.: Assessing the impact of crops on regional CO2 fluxes and atmospheric concentrations, Tellus B, 62, 521-532, 2010.
23. Crevoisier, C., Sweeney, C., Gloor, M., Sarmiento, J. L., and Tans, P. P.: Regional US carbon sinks from three-dimensional atmospheric CO2 sampling, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107, 18348-18353, 2010.
24. De Jong, B., Anaya, C., Masera, O., Olguin, M., Paz, F., Etchevers, J., Martinez, R. D., Guerrero, G., and Balbontin, C.: Greenhouse gas emissions between 1993 and 2002 from land-use change and forestry in Mexico, For. Ecol. Mgmt., 260, 1689-1701, doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2010.08.011, 2010.
25. Deng, F., Chen, J. M., Ishizawa, M., Yuen, C. W., Mo, G., Higuchi, K., Chan, D., and Maksyutov, S.: Global monthly CO2 flux inversion with a focus over North America, Tellus B, 59, 179-190, 2007. (Pubitemid 46455924)
26. Draxler, R. R. and Hess, G. D.: An overview of the HYSPLIT 4 modeling system for trajectories, dispersion, and deposition, Aust. Meteorol. Mag., 47, 295-308, 1998. (Pubitemid 128184063)
27. Ek, M. B., Mitchell, K. E., Lin, Y., Rogers, E., Grunmann, P., Ko-ren, V., Gayno, G., and Tarpley, J. D.: Implementation of Noah land surface model advances in the National Centers for Enviro-mental Prediction operational mesoscale Eta model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atm., 108, 8851, doi:10.1029/2002JD003296, 2003.
28. Engelen, R. J., Denning, A. S., and Gurney, K. R.: On error estimation in atmospheric CO2 inversions, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4635, doi:10.1029/ 2002JD002195, 2002. (Pubitemid 43211894)
29. Enting, I. G.: Inverse Problems in Atmospheric Constituent Transport, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 2002.
30. Erickson III, D. J., Mills, R. T., Gregg, J., Blasing, T. J., Hoffman, F. M., Andres, R. J., Devries, M., Zhu, Z., and Kawa, S. R.: An estimate of monthly global emissions of anthropogenic CO2: Impact on the seasonal cycle of atmospheric CO2, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeosciences, 113, G01023, doi:10.1029/2007JG000435, 2008.
31. Geels, C., Gloor, M., Ciais, P., Bousquet, P., Peylin, P., Vermeulen, A. T., Dargaville, R., Aalto, T., Brandt, J., Christensen, J. H., Frohn, L. M., Haszpra, L., Karstens, U., Rödenbeck, C., Ra-monet, M., Carboni, G., and Santaguida, R.: Comparing atmospheric transport models for future regional inversions over Europe-Part 1: mapping the atmospheric CO2 signals, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 7, 3461-3479, doi:10.5194/acp-7-3461-2007, 2007. (Pubitemid 47143395)
32. Gerbig, C., Lin, J. C., Wofsy, S. C., Daube, B. C., Andrews, A. E., Stephens, B. B., Bakwin, P. S., and Grainger, C. A.: Toward constraining regional-scale fluxes of CO2 with atmospheric observations over a continent: 1. Observed spatial variability from airborne platforms, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 4756, doi:10.1029/2002jd003018, 2003a.
33. Gerbig, C., Lin, J. C., Wofsy, S. C., Daube, B. C., Andrews, A. E., Stephens, B. B., Bakwin, P. S., and Grainger, C. A.: Toward constraining regional-scale fluxes of CO2 with atmospheric observations over a continent: 2. Analysis of COBRA data using a receptor-oriented framework, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 4757, doi:10.1029/2003JD003770, 2003b.
34. Gerbig, C., Körner, S., and Lin, J. C.: Vertical mixing in atmospheric tracer transport models: error characterization and propagation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 591-602, doi:10.5194/acp-8-591-2008, 2008.
35. Gerbig, C., Dolman, A. J., and Heimann, M.: On observational and modelling strategies targeted at regional carbon exchange over continents, Biogeosciences, 6, 1949-1959, doi:10.5194/bg-6-1949-2009, 2009.
36. GLOBALVIEW-CO2: Cooperative Atmospheric Data Integration Project-Carbon Dioxide (2010), CD-ROM, NOAA ESRL, Boulder, Colorado, also available at: ftp.cmdl.noaa.gov, Path: ccg/co2/GLOBALVIEW], 2010.
37. Göckede, M., Turner, D. P., Michalak, A. M., Vickers, D., and Law, B. E.: Sensitivity of a sub-regional scale atmospheric inverse CO2 modeling framework to boundary conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D24112, doi:10.1029/2010JD014443, 2010a.
38. Göckede, M., Michalak, A. M., Vickers, D., Turner, D. P., and Law, B. E.: Atmospheric inverse modeling to constrain regional-scale CO2 budgets at high spatial and temporal resolution, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D15113, doi:10.1029/2009JD012257, 2010b.
39. Gourdji, S. M., Mueller, K. L., Schaefer, K., and Michalak, A. M.: Global monthly-averaged CO2 fluxes recovered using a geostatistical inverse modeling approach: 2. Results including auxiliary environmental data, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D21115, doi:10.1029/2007JD009733, 2008.
40. Gourdji, S. M., Hirsch, A. I., Mueller, K. L., Yadav, V., Andrews, A. E., and Michalak, A. M.: Regional-scale geostatistical inverse modeling of North American CO2 fluxes: a synthetic data study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 6151-6167, doi:10.5194/acp-10-6151-2010, 2010.
41. Grell, G. A. and Devenyi, D.: A generalized approach to parameterizing convection combining ensemble and data assimilation techniques, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1693, doi:10.1029/2002GL015311, 2002.
42. Gurney, K. R., Mendoza, D. L., Zhou, Y. Y., Fischer, M. L., Miller, C. C., Geethakumar, S., and DuCan, S. D.: High resolution fos sil fuel combustion CO2 emission fluxes for the United States, Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 5535-5541, doi:10.1021/es900806c, 2009.
43. Hanna, S. R.: Applications in air pollution modeling. Atmospheric turbulence and air pollution modeling, edited by: Nieuwstadt, F. T. M. and van Dop, H., D. Reidel, Norwell, Mass., 358 pp., 1982.
44. Hayes, D. J., Turner, D. P., Stinson, G., McGuire, A. D., Wei, Y., West, T. O., Heath, L. S., de Jong, B., McConkey, B. G., Birdsey, R. A., Kurz, W. A., Jacobson, A. R., Huntzinger, D. N., Pan, Y., Post, W. M., and Cook, R. B.: Reconciling estimates of the contemporary North American carbon balance among terrestrial biosphere models, atmospheric inversions, and a new approach for estimating net ecosystem exchange from inventory-based data, Global Change Biology, accepted, 2012.
45. Hoeksema, R. J. and Kitanidis, P. K.: An application of the geo-statistical approach to the inverse problem in two-dimensional groundwater modeling, Water Resour. Res., 20, 1003-1020, 1984.
46. Hong, S. Y., Noh, Y., and Dudhia, J.: A new vertical diffusion package with an explicit treatment of entrainment processes, Mon. Weather Rev., 134, 2318-2341, 2006. (Pubitemid 44445432)
47. Huntzinger, D. N., Gourdji, S. M., Mueller, K. L., and Michalak, A. M.: A systematic approach for comparing modeled biospheric carbon fluxes across regional scales, Biogeosciences, 8, 1579-1593, doi:10.5194/bg-8-1579-2011, 2011.
48. Huntzinger, D. N., Gourdji, S. M., Mueller, K. L., and Michalak, A. M.: The utility of continuous atmospheric measurements for identifying biospheric CO2 flux variability, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., doi:10.1029/2010JD015048, in press, 2012a.
49. Huntzinger, D. N., Post, W. M., Wei, Y., Michalak, A. M., West, T. O., Jacobson, A. R., Baker, I. T., Chen, J. M., Davis, K. J., Hayes, D. J., Hoffman, F. M., Jain, A. K., Liu, S., McGuire, A. D., Neil-son, R. P., Poulter, B., Raczka, B. M., Tian, H. Q., Thornton, P., Tomelleri, E., Viovy, N., Xiao, J., Zeng, N., Zhao, M., and Cook, R.: North American Carbon Program (NACP) Regional Interim Synthesis: Terrestrial Biospheric Model Intercomparison, Ecol. Model., in review, 2012b.
50. Ise, T. and Moorcroft, P. R.: The global-scale temperature and moisture dependencies of soil organic carbon decomposition: an analysis using a mechanistic decomposition model, Biogeochemistry, 80, 217-231, 2006. (Pubitemid 44484892)
51. Johnson, J. M.-F., Allmaras, R. R., and Reicosky, D. C.: Estimating source carbon from crop residues, roots and rhizodeposits using the national grain-yield database, Agron. J., 98, 622-636, 2006. (Pubitemid 43764935)
52. Kaminski, T., Rayner, P. J., Heimann, M., and Enting, I. G.: On aggregation errors in atmospheric transport inversions, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 4703-4715, 2001.
53. Kitanidis, P. K.: Quasi-linear geostatistical theory for inversing, Water Resour. Res., 31, 2411-2419, 1995. (Pubitemid 26475164)
54. Kort, E. A., Eluszkiewicz, J., Stephens, B. B., Miller, J. B., Gerbig, C., Nehrkorn, T., Daube, B. C., Kaplan, J. O., Houweling, S., and Wofsy, S. C.: Emissions of CH4 and N2O over the United States and Canada based on a receptor-oriented modeling framework and COBRA-NA atmospheric observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L18808, doi:10.1029/2008GL034031, 2008.
55. Kort, E. A., Andrews, A. E., Dlugokencky, E., Sweeney, C., Hirsch, A., Eluszkiewicz, J., Nehrkorn, T., Michalak, A., Stephens, B., Gerbig, C., Miller, J. B., Kaplan, J., Houweling, S., Daube, B. C., Tans, P., and Wofsy, S. C.: Atmospheric constraints on 2004 emissions of methane and nitrous oxide in North America from atmospheric measurements and receptor-oriented modeling framework, J. Integr. Environ. Sci., 7, 125-133, 2010.
56. Land, A. H. and Doig, A. G.: An automatic method of solving discrete programming problems, Econometrica, 28, 497-520, 1960.
57. Law, R. M., Rayner, P. J., Steele, L. P., and Enting, I. G.: Using high temporal frequency data for CO2 inversions, Global Bio-geochem. Cy., 4, 1053, doi:10.1029/2001GB001593, 2002.
58. Lin, J. C. and Gerbig, C.: Accounting for the effect of transport errors on tracer inversions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L01802, doi:10.1029/2004GL021227, 2005.
59. Lin, J. C., Gerbig, C., Wofsy, S. C., Daube, B. C., Andrews, A. E., Davis, K. J., and Grainger, C. A.: A near-field tool for simulating the upstream influence of atmospheric observations: The Stochastic Time-Inverted Lagrangian Transport (STILT) model, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4493, doi:10.1029/2002JD003161, 2003.
60. Lin, Y. L., Farley, R. D., and Orville, H. D.: Bulk parameterization of the snow field in a cloud model, J. Appl. Meteorol., 22, 1065-1092, 1983.
61. Lloyd, J. and Taylor, J. A.: On the temperature-dependence of soil respiration, Functional Ecology, 8, 315-323, 1994.
62. Lokupitiya, E., Denning, S., Paustian, K., Baker, I., Schaefer, K., Verma, S., Meyers, T., Bernacchi, C. J., Suyker, A., and Fischer, M.: Incorporation of crop phenology in Simple Biosphere Model (SiBcrop) to improve land-atmosphere carbon exchanges from croplands, Biogeosciences, 6, 969-986, doi:10.5194/bg-6-969-2009, 2009.
63. Manning, A. J.: The challenge of estimating regional trace gas emissions from atmospheric observations, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. A, 369, 1943-1954, doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0321, 2011.
64. Markovic, M., Jones, C. G., Winger, K., and Paquin, D.:, The surface radiation budget over North America: gridded data assessment and evaluation of regional climate models, Int. J. Climatol., 29, 2226-2240, doi:10.1002/joc.1860, 2009.
65. Marland, G., Hamal, K., and Jonas, M.: How uncertain are estimates of CO2 emissions?, J. Ind. Ecol., 13, 4-7, 2009.
66. Masarie, K. A. and Tans, P. P.: Extension and integration of atmospheric carbon-dioxide data into a globally consistent measurement record, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 100, 11593-11610, 1995.
67. Mass, C. F., Ovens, D., Westrick, K., and Colle, B. A.: Does increasing horizontal resolution produce more skillful forecasts?, B. Am. Meteor. Soc., 83, 407-430, 2002.
68. McPherson, R. A., Stensrud, D. J., and Crawford, K. C.: The impact of Oklahoma's winter wheat belt on the mesoscale environment, Mon. Weather Rev., 132, 405-421, 2004. (Pubitemid 38335442)
69. Mesinger, F., DiMego, G., Kalnay, E., Mitchell, K., Shafran, P. C., Ebisuzaki, W., Jovic, D., Woollen, J., Rogers, E., Berbery, E. H., Ek, M. B., Fan, Y., Grumbine, R., Higgins, W., Li, H., Lin, Y., Manikin, G., Parrish, D., and Shi, W.: North American Regional Reanalysis, B. Am. Meteor. Soc., 87, 343-360, 2006.
70. Michalak, A. M., Bruhwiler, L., and Tans, P. P.: A geo-statistical approach to surface flux estimation of atmospheric trace gases, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, D14109, doi:10.1029/2003JD004422, 2004. (Pubitemid 39364465)
71. Miller, S. M., Kort, E. A., Hirsch, A. I., Dlugokencky, E. J., Andrews, A. E., Xu, X., Tian, H., Nehrkorn, T., Eluszkiewicz, J., Michalak, A. M., and Wofsy, S. C. (in revision), Regional sources of nitrous oxide over the United States: seasonal variation and spatial distribution, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., doi:10.1029/2011JD016951, in press, 2012.
72. Mlawer, E. J., Taubman, S. J., Brown, P. D., Iacono, M. J., and Clough, S. A.: Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmospheres: RRTM, a validated correlated-k model for the longwave, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 102, 16663-16682, 1997.
73. Mueller, K. L.: A Data-Driven Multi-Scale Statistical Investigation of Regional Sources and Sinks to Improve Knowledge of Terrestrial Carbon Cycling, University of Michigan, 2011, United States-Michigan: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I. Web., 13 December 2011.
74. Mueller, K. L., Gourdji, S. M., and Michalak, A. M.: Global monthly-averaged CO2 fluxes recovered using a geo-statistical inverse modeling approach: 1. Results using atmospheric measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D21114, doi:10.1029/2007JD009734, 2008.
75. Mueller, K. L., Yadav, V., Curtis, P. S., Vogel, C., and Michalak, A. M.: Attributing the variability of eddy-covariance CO2 flux measurements across temporal scales using geostatistical regression for a mixed northern hardwood forest, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 24, GB3023, doi:10.1029/2009GB003642, 2010.
76. Nehrkorn, T., Eluszkiewicz, J., Wofsy, S. C., Lin, J. C., Ger-big, C., Longo, M., and Freitas, S.: Coupled Weather Research and Forecasting/Stochastic Time-Inverted Lagrangian Transport (WRF-STILT) model, Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 107, 51-64, doi:10.1007/s00703-010-0068-x, 2010.
77. NOAA-ESRL Global Monitoring Division Tall Tower Network, available at: http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/towers/index. html, last access: 2 June 2011.
78. Oda, T. and Maksyutov, S.: A very high-resolution (1 km×1 km) global fossil fuel CO2 emission inventory derived using a point source database and satellite observations of nighttime lights, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 11, 543-556, doi:10.5194/acp-11-543-2011, 2011.
79. Odman, M. T.: A quantitative analysis of numerical diffusion introduced by advection algorithms in air quality models, Atmos. Environ., 31, 1933-1940, 1997.
80. Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D'Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Rick-etts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., and Kassem, K. R.: Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on earth, Bioscience, 51, 933-938, 2001. (Pubitemid 33072658)
81. Peters, W., Jacobson, A. R., Sweeney, C., Andrews, A. E., Conway, T. J., Masarie, K., Miller, J. B., Bruhwiler, L. M. P., Petron, G., Hirsch, A. I., Worthy, D. E. J., van der Werf, G. R., Randerson, J. T., Wennberg, P. O., Krol, M. C., and Tans, P. P.: An atmospheric perspective on North American carbon dioxide exchange: Car-bonTracker, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 104, 18925-18930, 2007.
82. Peters, W., Krol, M. C., van der Werf, G. R., Houweling, S., Jones, C. D., Hughes, J., Schaefer, K., Masarie, K. A., Jacobson, A. R., Miller, J. B., Cho, C. H., Ramonet, M., Schmidt, M., Ciattaglia, L., Apadula, F., Heltai, D., Meinhardt, F., DiSarra, A. G., Pi-acentino, S., Sferlazzo, D., Aalto, T., Hatakka, J., Strom, J., Haszpra, L., Meijer, H. A. J., van der Laan, S., Neubert, R. E. M., Jordan, A., Rodo, X., Morgui, J.-A., Vermeulen, A. T., Popa, E., Rozanski, K., Zimnoch, M., Manning, A. C., Leuen-berger, M., Uglietti, C., Dolman, A. J., Ciais, P., Heimann, M., and Tans, P. P.: Seven years of recent European net terrestrial carbon dioxide exchange constrained by atmospheric observations, Glob. Change Biol., 16, 1317-1337, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009. 02078.x, 2010a.
83. Peters, W., Miller, J. B., Schaefer, K. M., van der Velde, I., van der Werf, G., Dolman, A. J., Carvalhais, N., and Tans, P. P.: Forest carbon imbalance information improves atmosphere based carbon data assimilation systems, abstract B31F-0378 presented at 2010 Fall Meeting, AGU, San Francisco, CA, 13-17 December, 2010b.
84. Prather, M. J., Zhua, X., Strahan, S. E., Steenrod, S. D., and Rodriguez, J. M.: Quantifying errors in trace species transport modeling, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 105, 19617-19621, 2008.
85. Randerson, J. T., Hoffman, F. M., Thornton, P. E., Mahowald, N. M., Lindsay, K., Lee, Y. H., Nevison, C. D., Doney, S. C., Bo-nan, G., Stockli, R., Covey, C., Running, S. W., and Fung, I. Y.: Systematic assessment of terrestrial biogeochemistry in coupled climate-carbon models, Glob. Change Biol., 15, 2462-2484, 2009.
86. Rastigejev, Y., Park, R., Brenner, M. P., and Jacob, D. J.: Resolving intercontinental pollution plumes in global models of atmospheric transport, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, D02302, doi:10.1029/2009JD012568, 2010.
87. Riley, W. J., Randerson, J. T., Foster, P. N., and Lueker, T. J.: Influence of terrestrial ecosystems and topography on coastal CO2 measurements: A case study at Trinidad Head, California, J. Geophys. Res., 110, G01005, doi:10.1029/2004JG000007, 2005.
88. Rödenbeck, C., Houweling, S., Gloor, M., and Heimann, M.: CO2 flux history 1982-2001 inferred from atmospheric data using a global inversion of atmospheric transport, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1919-1964, doi:10.5194/acp-3-1919- 2003, 2003.
89. Schuh, A. E., Denning, A. S., Uliasz, M., and Corbin, K. D.: Seeing the forest through the trees: Recovering large scale carbon flux biases in the midst of small-scale variability, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 114, G03007, doi:10.1029/2008JG000842, 2009.
90. Schuh, A. E., Denning, A. S., Corbin, K. D., Baker, I. T., Uliasz, M., Parazoo, N., Andrews, A. E., and Worthy, D. E. J.: A regional high-resolution carbon flux inversion of North America for 2004, Biogeosciences, 7, 1625-1644, doi:10.5194/bg-7-1625-2010, 2010.
91. Schwalm, C. R., Wiliams, C. A., Schaefer, K., Anderson, R., Arain, M. A., Baker, I., Barr, A., Black, T. A., Chen, G. S., Chen, J. M., Ciais, P., Davis, K. J., Desai, A., Dietze, M., Dragoni, D., Fischer, M. L., Flanagan, L. B., Grant, R., Gu, L. H., Hollinger, D., Izaurralde, R. C., Kucharik, C., Lafleur, P., Law, B. E., Li, H., Li, Z. P., Liu, S. G., Lokupitiya, E., Luo, Y. Q., Ma, S. Y., Margo-lis, H., Matamala, R., McCaughey, H., Monson, R. K., Oechel, W. C., Peng, C. H., Poulter, B., Price, D. T., Ricciuto, D. M., Riley, W., Sahoo, A. K., Sprintsin, M., Sun, J. F., Tian, H. Q., Tonitto, C., Verbeeck, H., and Verma, S. B.: A model-data in-tercomparison of CO2 exchange across North America: Results from the North American Carbon Program site synthesis, J. Geo-phys. Res.-Biogeo., 115, G00H05, doi:10.1029/2009JG001229, 2010.
92. Schwarz, G.: Estimating the dimension of a model, Ann. Stat., 6, 461-464, doi:10.1214/aos/1176344136, 1978.
93. Skamarock, W. C. and Klemp, J. B.: A time-split nonhydrostatic atmospheric model for weather research and forecasting applications, J. Comp. Phys., 227, 3465-3485, 2008.
94. Smith, P. C., De Noblet-Ducoudre, N., Ciais, P., Peylin, P., Viovy, N., Meurdesoif, Y., and Bondeau, A.: European-wide simulations of croplands using an improved terrestrial biosphere model: phenology and productivity, J. Geophys. Res., 115, G01014, doi:10.1029/2008JG000800, 2010.
95. Stohl, A.: Computation, accuracy and applications of trajectories-a review and bibliography, Atmos. Environ., 32, 947-966, 1998. (Pubitemid 28236480)
96. Stohl, A., Forster, C., Eckhardt, S., Spichtinger, N., Huntrieser, H., Heland, J., Schlager, H., Wilhelm, S., Arnold, F., and Cooper, O.: A backward modeling study of intercontinental pollution transport using aircraft measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4370, doi:10.1029/2002JD002862, 2003.
97. Tans, P. and Conway, T. J.: Monthly Atmospheric CO2 Mixing Ratios from the NOAA CMDL Carbon Cycle Cooperative Global Air Sampling Network, 1968-2002, in: Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn., USA, 2005.
98. Uliasz, M.: Lagrangian particle modeling in mesoscale applications. Environmental Modeling II, edited by: Zannetti, P., Computational Mechanics Publications, 71-102, 1994.
99. Uliasz, M. and Pielke, R. A.: Receptor-oriented Lagrangian-Eulerian model of mesoscale air pollution dispersion, in: Computer techniques in environmental studies, edited by: Zannetti, P., 57-68, Computational Mechanics, Southampton, 1990.
100. Urbanski, S., Barford, C., Wofsy, S., Kucharik, C., Pyle, E., Bud-ney, J., McKain, K., Fitzjarrald, D., Czikowsky, M., and Munger, J. W.: Factors controlling CO2 exchange on timescales from hourly to decadal at Harvard Forest, J. Geophys. Res., 112, G02020, doi:10.1029/2006JG000293, 2007. (Pubitemid 47351090)
101. Ward, E. J.: A review and comparison of four commonly used Bayesian and maximum likelihood model selection tools, Ecol. Modell., 211, 1-10, doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2007.10.030, 2008.
102. Wen, D., Lin, J. C., Meng, F., Gbor, P. K., He, Z., and Sloan, J. J.: Quantitative assessment of upstream source influences on total gaseous mercury observations in Ontario, Canada, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 1405-1415, doi:10.5194/acp-11-1405-2011, 2011.
103. West, G. L., Steenburgh, J., and Cheng, W. Y. Y.: Spurious grid-scale precipitation in the North American Regional Reanalysis, Mon. Weather Rev., 135, 2168-2183, 2007.
104. Yadav, V., Mueller, K. L., Dragoni, D., and Michalak, A. M.: A geostatistical synthesis study of factors affecting gross primary productivity in various ecosystems of North America, Biogeo-sciences, 7, 2655-2671, doi:10.5194/bg-7-2655-2010, 2010.
105. Yadav, V., Mueller, K. L., and Michalak, A.: A Backward Elimination Discrete Optimization Algorithm for Model Selection in Spatio-temporal Regression Models, Geographical Analysis, May 31, in review, 2012.
106. Yang, W., Shabanov, N. V., Huang, D., Wang, W., Dickinson, R. E., Nemani, R. R., Knyazikhin, Y., and Myneni, R. B.: Analysis of leaf area index products from combination of MODIS Terra and Aqua data, Remote Sens. Environ., 104, 3, 297-312, 2006. (Pubitemid 44414909)
107. Zhao, C., Andrews, A. E., Bianco, L., Eluszkiewicz, J., Hirsch, A., MacDonald, C., Nehrkorn, T., and Fischer, M. L.: Atmospheric inverse estimates of methane emissions from Central California, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D16302, doi:10.1029/2008JD011671, 2009.
108. Zimmerman, D. A., de Marsily, G., Gotway, C. A., Marietta, M. G., Axness, C. L., Beauheim, R. L., Bras, R. L., Carrera, J., Dagan, G., Davies, P. B., Gallegos, D. P., Galli, A., Gomez-Hernandez, J., Grindrod, P., Gutjahr, A. L., Kitanidis, P. K., Lavenue, A. M., McLaughlin, D., Neuman, S. P., RamaRao, B. S., Ravenne, C., and Rubin, Y.:A comparison of seven geostatistically based inverse approaches to estimate transmissivities for modeling ad-vective transport by groundwater flow, Water Res. Res., 34, 1373-1413, 1998. (Pubitemid 28253515)