Place aux dames: The ideological divide between U.S. and European gender discrimination laws

Cornell International Law Journal

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 25-76

  Dammann, Jens ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84862214354     PISSN: 00108812     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (239)

1. Katerina Linos, Path Dependence in Discrimination Law: Employment Cases in the United States and the European Union, 35 Yale J. Int'l L. 115, 115-69(2010)
2. Julie C. Suk, Procedural Path Dependence: Discrimination and the Civil-Criminal Divide, 85 Wash. U. L. Rev. 1315, 1315-71 (2008)
3. Lucian Arye Bebchuk & Mark J. Roe, A Theory of Path Dependence in Corporate Ownership and Governance, 52 Stan. L. Rev. 127 (1999)
4. Stephen J. Choi, Law, Finance, and Path Dependence: Developing Strong Securities Markets, 80 Tex. L. Rev. 1657 (2002)
5. Oona A. Hathaway, Path Dependence in the Law: The Course and Pattern of Legal Change in a Common Law System, 86 Iowa L. Rev. 601 (2001)
6. Christiane C. Wendehorst, The State as a Foundation of Private Law Reasoning, 56 Am. J. Comp. L., 567-573 n.21 (2008)
7. Aldon Morris, A Retrospective on the Civil Rights Movement: Political and Intellectual Landmarks, 25 Ann. Rev. Soc. 517, 517 (1999).
8. Lizette Alvarez, Norway Is Set to Compel Boardrooms to Let More Women in, N.Y. Times, July 14, 2003, at A3, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/ 14/?world/norway-is-set-to-compel-boardrooms-to-let-more-women-in.html.
9. Emile Picey & Daniel Flynn, France Sets Quota for Women on Big Companies' Boards, Reuters Qan. 13, 2011), http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/ 01/713/us-france-equality-idUSTRE70C5ZA20110113.
10. http://www.handelsblatt.7com/politik/international/frauenquote-fuer- boersennotierte-unternehmen/4345192.html
11. Leyen Droht, Konzernen mit der Frauenquote [Von der Leyen Threatens Corporations with Women's Quota], Fin. Times Deutschland, Jan. 19, 2011
12. Nicola Clark, Where Final Step is Hardest to Reach: Despite Advance, Women Find Wider Gender Gap at Top of Ladder in Europe, Int'l Herald Trib., Jan. 27, 2011, at 204.
13. Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union art. 157, para. 1, May 9, 2008, 2008 O.J. (C 115) 47.
14. Ricci v. DeStefano, 557 U.S. 557,-, 129 S. Ct. 2658, 2672 (2009)
15. S. Rep. No. 88-176, at 2 (1963)
16. Civil Rights Act tit. VII, 42 U.S.C. § 2000
17. C/. Richard Carlson, The Small Firm Exemption and the Single Employer Doctrine in Employment Discrimination Law, 80 St. John's L. Rev. 1197, 1197 (2006)
18. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 41-1461 (2011)
19. Fla. Stat. § 760.02 (2011)
20. 775 111. Comp. Stat. 5/2-101B(1)(A) (2011)
21. Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 344.030 (2011)
22. Neb. Rev. Stat. § 48-1102 (2010)
23. Nev. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 613.310 (2010)
24. Okla. Stat. tit. 25, § 1301 (1) (2011)
25. Md. Code Ann., State Gov't § 20-601 (2011)
26. S.C. Code Ann. § 1, 13-30 (2010)
27. Tex. Lab. Code Ann. § 21.002 (2011)
28. Utah Code Ann. § 34A-5-102 (2011)
29. Cal. Gov't Code § 12926 (2011)
30. Del. Code Ann. tit. 19, § 710 (2011)
31. Kan. Stat. Ann. § 44-1002 (2010)
32. N.Y. Exec. § 292 (2010)
33. http://www.census.gov/7epcd/www/smallbus.html
34. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Women in the Labor Force: A Databook 69-70 (2010)
35. http://www.bls.gov/7cps/wlf-table20-2010.pdf
36. http://datamarket.com/data/set/19uv/full-time-and-part-time-employ-ment? -by-sex-and-economic-activity-from-2008-nace-rev2-1000-3#!display=line
37. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY-OFFPUB/KS-CD-10-220/EN/ KS-CD-10-220-EN.PDF
38. Ilhardt v. Sara Lee Corp., 118 F.3d 1151, 1155 (7th Cir. 1997)
39. Flebotte v. Dow Jones & Co., 2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 19875, at 13 (D. Mass. Dec. 6, 2000).
40. Case 170/84, Bilka-Kaufhaus GmbH v. Karin Weber von Hartz, 1986 E.C.R. 1620, para. 31.
41. Council Directive 97/81/EC of 15 Dec. 1997 Concerning the Framework Agreement on Part-time Work Concluded by UNICE, CEEP, and the ETUC, annex cl. 4(1), 1998 O.J. (L 14) 9
42. http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/7industrialrela-tions/dictionary/ definitions/PARTTIMEWORK.htm.
43. Int'l Bhd. of Teamsters v. United States, 431 U.S. 324, 335 n.15 (1977)
44. AFSCME v. Washington, 770 F.2d 1401, 1406 (9th Cir. 1985)
45. Sacha E. de Lange, Toward Gender Equality: Affirmative Action, Comparable Worth, and the Women's Movement, 31 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 315, 349 n.285 (2007)
46. Atonio v. Wards Cove Packing Co., 810 F.2d 1477, 1486 (9th Cir. 1987)
47. Case 170/84, Bilka-Kaufhaus GmbH v. Karin Weber von Hartz, 1986 E.C.R. 1620, para. 31
48. Case C-300/06, Ursula VoK v. Land Berlin, 2007 E.C.R. 1-10573, para. 44
49. Case C-256/01, Debra Allonby v. Accrington & Rossendale College, 2004 E.C.R. 1-873, para. 75
50. Case C-184/89, Helga Nimz v. Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, 1991 E.C.R. 1-297, para. 15.
51. Joachim Zekoll & Jan Bolt, Die Pjlicht zur Vorlage von Urkunden im Zivilprozess-Amerihanische Verhdltnisse in Deutschland? [The Duty to Present Documents in Civil Proceedings-American Conditions in Germany?], 55 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift [NJW] 3129, 3129 (2002).
52. Kevin M. Clermont & Emily Sherwin, A Comparative View of Standards of Proof, 50 Am. J. Comp. L. 243, 248 (2002)
53. Steven J. Stein & Daniel R. Wotman, International Commercial Arbitration in the 1980s: A Comparison of the Major Arbitral Systems and Rules, 38 Bus. Law. 1685, 1707 (1983).
54. Cyrus Afshar & Paul Rose, Capital Markets Competitiveness: A Survey of Recent Reports, 2 Entrepreneurial Bus. L.J. 439, 468 (2007)
55. Nathan D. O'Malley & Shawn C. Conway, Document Discovery in International Arbitration-Getting the Documents You Need, 18 Transnat'l Law. 371, 371 (2005).
56. 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(1)(2000).
57. Aaron Baker, Access vs Process in Employment Discrimination: Why ADR Suits the US but not the UK, 31 Indus. L.J. 113, 115 (2002).
58. MichAlle E. Mor Barak, Managing Diversity: Toward A Globally Inclusive Workplace 51 n.11 (2005)
59. Christopher Hodges, Mufti-Party Actions: A European Approach, 11 Duke J. Comp. & Int'l L. 321, 330 (2001)
60. Peter F. Schlosser, Lectures on Civil-Law Litigation Systems and American Cooperation with Those Systems, 45 Kan. L. Rev. 9, 18 (1996).
61. Allgemeines GleichbehandlungsgeseLz [AGG] [Equal Treatment Act], Aug. 14, 2006, BGB11 at 1897, § 15(2)
62. 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3) (2000)
63. Henry H. Drummonds, The Sister Sovereign States: Preemption and the Second Twentieth Century Revolution in the Law of the American Workplace, 62 Fordham L. Rev. 469, 517 n.271 (1993).
64. AGG § 15
65. Code penal [C. pen.] art. 225-2
66. William K. Lietzau, Checks and Balances and Elements of Proof: Structural Pillars for the International Criminal Court, 32 Cornell Int'l L.J. 477, 485 n.37 (1999)
67. Jean-Rene Lecerf, Senat Rapport No. 65, at 18 (2004).
68. John J. Donohue III & Peter Siegelman, The Changing Nature of Employment Discrimination Litigation, 43 Stan. L. Rev. 983, 1031 (1991)
69. Cheryl R. Kaiser & Carol T. Miller, Stop Complaining! The Social Costs of Making Attributions to Discrimination, 27 Persp. & Soc Psychol. Bull. 254, 254-55 (2001)
70. Kristin Bumiller, The Civil Rights Society 26 (1992)
71. Robert L. Nelson et. al., Divergent Paths: Conflicting Conceptions of Employment Discrimination in Law and the Social Sciences, 4 Ann. Rev. L. Soc. Sci. 103, 109 (2008)
72. Theodore Eisenberg & Sheri Lynn Johnson, The Effects of Intent: Do We Know How Legal Standards Work?, 76 Cornell L. Rev. 1151, 1166 (1991)
73. David M. Trubek et al., The Costs of Ordinary Litigation, 31 UCLA L. Rev. 72, 87 (1983)
74. Vivian Grosswald Curran, Globalization, Legal Transnationalization and Crimes Against Humanity: The Lipietz Case, 56 Am. J. Comp. L. 363, 398 (2008).
75. Susan-Jacqueline Butler, Models of Modern Corporations: A Comparative Analysis of German and U.S. Corporate Structures, 17 Ariz. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 555, 598 (2000)
76. Gerhard Walter, Mass Tort Litigation in Germany and Switzerland, 11 Duke J. Comp. & Int'l. L. 369, 372 (2001).
77. Louis Degos & Geoffrey V. Morson, Class Systems: The Reforms of Class Action Laws in Europe Are as Varied as the Nations Themselves, 29 L.A. Law. 32, 34-36 (2006)
78. Winnie Chau, Note, Something Old, Something New, Something Borrowed, Something Blue and a Silver Sixpence for Her Shoe: Dukes v. Wal-Mart & Sex Discrimination Class Actions, 12 Cardozo J.L. & Gender 969, 993-96 (2006)
79. Elizabeth Chamblee Burch, CAFA's Impact on Litigation as a Public Good, 29 Cardozo L. Rev. 2517, 2550 (2008).
80. Michael Selmi, The Price of Discrimination: The Nature oj Class Action Employment Discrimination Litigation and Its Ejffects, 81 Tex. L. Rev. 1249, 1255 (2003).
81. Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(a).
82. Peter Lattman, Three Women Claim Bias at Goldman, N.Y. Times, Sept. 16, 2010, at Bl
83. Stephen Barr, FBI Settles Sex-Bias Suit Involving Non-Agents and Management Posts, Wash. Post, Aug. 16, 2006, at D04
84. Patrick McGeehan, Wall Street Highflier to Outcast: A Woman's Story, N.Y. Times, Feb. 10, 2002, at 1
85. Steven Greenhouse & Michael Barbaro, Costco Bias Suit Is Given Class-Action Status, N.Y. Times, Jan. 12, 2007, at C9
86. Marcia Heroux, Ensuring Workplace Equity, Sun Sentinel, May 17, 2007, at Dl
87. Regarding U.S. law, see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(k)(l)(A)(i) (2011)
88. McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 802 (1973)
89. McDonnell Douglas Corp., 411 U.S. at 802.
90. Tex Dep't of Cmty. Affairs v. Burdine, 450 U.S. 248, 253-54 (1981)
91. Louis v. E. Baton Rouge Parish Sch. Bd., 303 F. Supp. 2d 799, 801-02 (M.D. La. 2003).
92. Dawson v. Bumble & Bumble, 398 F.3d 211, 216 (2d Cir. 2005)
93. Burdine, 450 U.S. at 253 n.6.
94. Randle v. LaSalle Telecomm. Inc., 876 F.2d 563, 568 (7th Cir. 1989)
95. Robert J. Smith, The Title VII Pretext Question: Resolved in Light of St. Mary's Honor Center v. Hicks, 70 Ind. L.J. 281, 283 (1994)).
96. Christoph Bergwitz, Die Neuen EG-Richtlinien zur Beweislast bei Geschlecht-sbedingter Disferiminierung [The New EC Directives on the Burden of Proof in Cases of Gender Discrimination], 52 Der Betrieb 94, 97 (1999)
97. Alexander Leuchten, Der Einfluss der EG-Richthmen zur Gleichbehandlung auf das deutsche Arbeitsrecht [The Influence of the EC Equal Treatment Directives on German Employment Law], 19 Neue Zeit-schrift for Arbeitsrecht [NZA] 738, 740 (2002)
98. Jobst-Hubertus Bauer, Burkhard Gopfert & Steffen Krieger, Allgemeines Gleichbehan-dlungsgesetz [equal treatment act] 10 (2007)
99. Gregor Thusing, § 22 AGG, in 2 Monchener Kommentar zum Burger-lichen Gesetzbuch § 22 1 12 (Kurt Rebmann et al. eds., 5th ed. 1997)
100. Peter Windel, Der Beweis Disfcriminierender Benachteiligungen [Proving Discriminatory Disparate Treatment], 60 Recht der Arbeit [RdA] 1, 6 (2007)
101. McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 803 (1973)
102. Tex. Dep't of Cmty. Affairs v. Burdine, 450 U.S. 248, 253 (1981).
103. St. Mary's Honor Ctr. v. Hicks, 509 U.S. 502, 515 (1993).
104. Wallis v. J.R. Simplot Co., 26 F.3d 885, 889 (9th Cir. 1994).
105. Mark J. Roe, Chaos and Evolution in Law and Economics, 109 Harv. L. Rev. 641, 643 (1996)
106. Paul Craig & Grainne de Burca, EU Law: Text, Cases, and Materials 7-37 (4th ed. 2008)
107. Treaty of Lisbon Amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty Establishing the European Community, Dec. 13, 2007, 2007 O.J. (C 306) 1.
108. Amnon Lehavi, The Global Law of the Land, 81 U. Colo. L. Rev. 425, 441 (2010).
109. TEU art. 19(1). Case 283/81
110. Sri CILFIT v. Ministry of Health, 1982 E.C.R. 3415 para. 20
111. Bundesgerichtshof [BGH] [Federal Court of Justice] Dec. 5, 1995, 48 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift [NJW] 984 (985), 1995
112. Gesetz zur Einfuhrung von Kapitalanleger-Musterverfahren [KapMuG] [Capital Markets Model Case Act], Aug. 16, 2005, BGBl I, 2005, 2437 (Ger.).
113. Christoph Keller & Annabella Rolling, Das Gesetz zur Einfuhrung von Kapitalanleger-Musterverfahren-Ein Uberblick [The Act Introducing Model Proceedings for Securities Investors-A Survey] 5 BKR [Zeitschrift für Bank- und Kapitalmarktrecht] 399, 400 (2005)
114. Pierre Legrand, European Legal Systems Are Not Converging, 45 Intl & Comp. L.Q. 55 (1996).
115. Reinhard Greger, Vor § 284: Verfahren vor den Landgerichten [Proceedings Before the District Court], in ZOller Zivilprozessordnung 832-36 (Reinhold Geimer et al., eds., 25th ed. 2005)
116. U. Pa. L. Rev. 267, 320 (1994)
117. Ramona L. Paetzold & Rafael Gely, Through the Looking Glass: Can Title VII Help Women and Minorities Shatter the Glass Ceiling?, 31 Hous. L. Rev. 1517, 1552-53 (1995)
118. Alberto Alesina et al., Inequality and Happiness: Are Europeans and Americans Different?, 88 J. Pub. Econ. 2009, 2010 (2004)
119. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Women in Industry, 8 Monthly Lab. Rev. 216, 217 (1919).
120. 29 U.S.C. § 206(d) (2000).
121. Cynthia Harrison, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women s Issues 89-105 (1989)
122. Fair Labor Standards Amendments of 1961, Pub. L. No. 87-30, § 13(d)
123. 75 Stat. 65, 71 (1961)
124. 29 U.S.C. § 213(a)(1) (2000)
125. Education Amendments of 1972, Pub. L. No. 92-318, § 906(b)(1)
126. 86 Stat. 235, 375 (1972)
127. 29 U.S.C. § 213(a)(1) (2000).
128. 109 Cong. Rec. 9214 (1963)
129. Elizabeth Bartholet, Application of Title VII to Jobs in High Places, 95 Harv. L. Rev. 945, 980-83 (1982)
130. Reva B. Siegel, Equality Talk: Antisubordination and Antidassification Values in Constitutional Struggles over Brown, 117 Harv. L. Rev. 1470, 1501 (2004).
131. Daniel B. Rodriguez & Bany R. Weingast, The Positive Political Theory of Legislative History: New Perspectives on the 1964 Civil Rights Act and Its Interpretation, 151 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1417, 1452-98 (2003)
132. Herbert Hill, Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record, in Race in America: The Struggle for Equality 263, 263-41 (Herbert Hill & James E.Jones, Jr. eds., 1993)
133. Carl M. Brauer, Women Activists, Southern Conservatives, and the Prohibition of Sex Discrimination in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, 49 J. S. Hist. 37, 37-56 (1983)
134. Charles Whalen & Barbara Whalen, The Longest Debate: A Legislative History of the 1964 Civil Rights Act 115-17 (1985)
135. H.R. 7152, 88th Cong., 1st Sess. §§ 704(a)-(b) (1963)
136. H.R. Rep. No. 88-914 (1963)
137. Cong. Rec. 2577 (1964).
138. 90 Calif. L. Rev. 765, 767 (2002)
139. 110 Cong. Rec. 2578-84 (1964).
140. 110 Cong. Rec. 2584 (1964).
141. H.R. Rep. No. 88-914
142. 110 Cong. Rec. 8452-53 (1964)
143. 110 Cong. Rec. 12619 (1964)
144. S. Comm. on Educ. & Labor, H.R. Rep. No. 92-238 (1971)
145. 117 Cong. Rec. 31967 (1971)
146. 117 Cong. Rec. 31976 (1971)
147. 117 Cong. Rec. 32106 (1971)
148. S. Comm. on Labor & Pub. Welfare, H.R. Rep. No. 92-415 (1971)
149. H.R. Rep. No. 92-415 (1971)
150. 117 Cong. Rec. 32101 (1971)
151. H. Comm. on Educ. & Labor, H.R. Rep. No. 92-238 (1971)
152. H.R. Rep. No. 92-238, reprinted in EEOA 1972
153. Subcomm. on Labor of the S. Comm. on Labor & Pub. Welfare, H.R. 1746, 92nd Cong., 2d Sess., reprinted in EEOA 1972.
154. 117 Cong. Rec. 32,095 (1971)
155. 117 Cong. Rec. 32,103 (1971)
156. 117 Cong. Rec. 32,104 (1971)
157. Georg Steinmann & Heinz Goldschmidt, Gewerkschaften und Fragen des kol-lektiven arbeitsrechts in grofbritannien, frankreich, belgien, den nlederlanden und Italien 65 (1957)
158. International Labor Office, Employment of Women in France, 55 Int'l Lab. Rev. 549, 552 (1947).
159. International Labor Office, Social Legislation in Wartime, 40 Int'l Lab. Rev. 641, 641-50 (1939)
160. International Labor Office, Social Legislation in Wartime, 40 Int'l Lab. Rev. 641, 646-47 (1939).
161. B. Piguet, L'Egalite des Salaires Masculins et Feminins, 2 Revue Francaise du Travail 419, 425 (1947)
162. Daniele Alexandre, The Status of Women in France, 20 Am. J. Comp. L. 647, 655 (1972)
163. Arthur M. Ross, Western Europe: Italy and France, 16 Indus. & Lab. Rel. Rev. 63, 82 (1962)
164. Arnold R. Weber, The Structure of Collective Bargaining and Bargaining Power: Foreign Experiences, 6 J.L. & Econ. 79,80 (1963)
165. Peter L. Lindseth, The Paradox of Parliamentary Supremacy: Delegation, Democracy, and Dictatorship in Germany and France, 1920s-1950s, 113 Yale L.J. 1341, 1387 (2004)
166. Eberhart Pikart & Wolfram Werner, Der Parlamentarische Rat 1948-1949: Akten und Protokolle [Files and Protocols], Volume 5/1: Ausschuss für Grundsatz-fragen [Committee for Policy Issues], X-XXI, at 142 (1993)
167. Catherine Hoskyns, Integrating Gender: Women, Law, and Politics in the European Union 55 (1996)
168. Civil Rights Act tit. VII, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b) (2000).
169. Ronald F. Wilson, Federal Tax Policy: The Political Influence of American Small Business, 37 S. Tex. L. Rev. 15, 17 (1996)
170. http://www.msee.fr/fr/themes/?tableau.asp?ref-id=NATTEF04112®-id= 0.
171. http://www.bls.gov/cps/minwage2009tbls.htm.
172. Fredrik Andersson, Harry Holzer, & Julia Lane, The Interactions of Workers and Firms in the Low-Wage Labor Market 18 (2002), available at http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/410608-lowwage.pdf
173. Lisa M. Lynch, Development Intermediaries and the Training of Low-Wage Workers, in Emerging labor market Institutions for the Twenty-first Century 293, 295 (Richard B. Freeman et al. eds., 2005)
174. Mark Berger et al., Distribution of Low-Wage Workers by Firm Size in the United States 8 (1999), available at http://www.sba.gov/advo/research/7rsl96tot. pdf
175. Kirsta Glenn, Minimum Wage Workers in Washington State 12 (2003), available at http://www.workforceexplorer.com/admin/uploadedPublications/7988- Mini-mumWageArticle.pdf
176. AFSCME v. Washington, 770 F.2d 1401, 1406 (9th Cir. 1985)
177. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Employment Outlook 71, tbl.3.3 (1997)
178. James A. Walker, Union Members in 2007: A Visual Essay, 131 Monthly Labor Rev. 28, 29 (2008).
179. Collective Bargaining Agreement Act, Aug. 25, 1969
180. Oct. 31, 2006, BGBl I at 2407, § 5(1)
181. Francine D. Blau & Lawrence M. Kahn, Understanding International Differences in the Gender Pay Gap, 21 J. Lab. Econ. 106, 139 (2003)
182. 196 TVG, § 4(3)
183. C. Trav., art. L 135-2
184. Codice Civile [Co] art. 2077 (It.).
185. TVG, § 4(3)
186. C. trav., art. L 135-2
187. Co art. 2077.
188. Julia Lohr & Henrike Rofibach, Vorzritige Tariferhohungen. Bescherung am Jahresanfang, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (Feb. 11, 2011), http://fazjob.net/?ratgeber-und-service/beruf-und-chance/beruf-und-chance/? em-cnt=l18710
189. Herbert H. Joka, Fuhrungskrafte-Handbuch: Personlichkeit, Karriere, Management, Recht 540 (2002)
190. Michael Eckert, Eingruppierung sog. AT-Angestellter [Categorization of So-called Employees Outside Collective Bargaining Agreements], 34 Deutsches Steuerrecht [DStR] 1215, 1215 (1996)
191. Tiziano Treu, Labour Law and Industrial Relations in Italy 38 (2d. ed. 2007)
192. C. Trav., art. L 1231-1
193. Protection Against Termination Act, Aug. 25, 1969
194. Carol D. Rasnic, Balancing Respective Rights in the Employment Contract: Contrasting the U.S. "Employment-at-Will" Rule with the Worker Statutory Protections Against Dismissal in European Community Countries, 4 J. Int'l L. & Prac. 441, 478-93 (1995)
195. Carol Daugherty Rasnic, Die KUndigung, Licenciement, Recesso dal Contrato, Firing, or Sacking: Comparing European and American Laws on Management Prerogatives and Discretion in Termination Decisions, 18 Ind. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 19 (2008).
196. Cynthia Estlund, Working Together: How Workplace Bonds Strengthen a Diverse Democracy 156 (2003).
197. Julie C. Suk, Discrimination at Will: Job Security Protections and Equal Employment Opportunity in Conflict, 60 Stan. L. Rev. 73, 75 (2007).
198. KSchG § 1(1)
199. C. trav. art. L 1221-19
200. Michael Blatz et al., Corporate Restructuring: Finance in Times of Crisis 98 (2006)
201. Claire Duchen, Women's Rights and Women's Lives in France: 1944-1968, at 141 (1994)
202. Nancy Gabin, "They Have Placed a Penalty on Womanhood": The Protest Actions of Women Auto Workers in Detroit-Area UAW Locals, 1945-1947, 8 Feminist Stud. 373, 375-98 (1982)
203. Michael Kittner & Thomas C. Kohler, Conditioning Expectations: The Protection of the Employment Bond in German and American Law, 21 Comp. Lab. L. & Pol'y J. 263, 314 (2000)
204. KSchG § 14(1)
205. Jean Baeten & Claude Devoet, La nouvelle loi sur les pensions comple- MENTAIRES 126 (2003).
206. KSchG § 14(2)
207. Works Council Act, Sept. 25, 2001
208. Dec. 8, 2008, BGBl I at 1666, § 1(1)
209. BetrVG § 15(2)
210. BetrVG § 119(1)
211. BetrVG § 78(a)
212. KSchG § 15(1)
213. BetrVG § 87
214. AFSCME v. Washington, 770 F.2d 1401, 1406 (9th Cir. 1985)
215. Jacques Rojot, France, in Workplace Justice: Employment Obligations in International Perspective 136, 139 (Hoyt N. Wheeler & Jacques Rojot eds., 1992).
216. Stephen F. Befort, Labor and Employment Law at the Millennium: A Historical Review and Critical Assessment, 43 B.C. L. Rev 351, 447 (2002)
217. Stephen F. Befort, A New Voice for the Workplace: A Proposal for an American Works Councils Act, 69 Mo. L. Rev. 607, 636 (2004).
218. Council Directive 94/45 On the Establishment of a European Works Council, art. 4(1), 1994 O.J. (L 254) 64.
219. BetrVG § 5(1)
220. BGBl I, at S. 2312
221. BGBl I, at S. 2407, § 1(1)
222. available at http://www.oslobors.no/ob-eng/Oslo-Boers/7Regula-tions/Acts
223. Darren Rosenblum, Feminizing Capital: A Corporate Imperative, 6 Berkley Bus. L.J. 55, 57 (2009).
224. Rachel Soares et al., 2010 Catalyst Census: Fortune 500 Women Board Directors 1 (2010), available at http://www.catalyst.org/file/413/2010-us- census-?women-board-directors-final.pdf.
225. Rachel Soares et al., 2010 Census: Women Executive Officers and Top Earners (2010), available at http://www.catalyst.org/file/412/2010-us-census- women-?executive-officers-and-top-earners-final.pdf.
226. available at http://www.usjapancouncil.org/images/uploads/Women-7in-the- Workplace-and-Leadership-IRENE-NATIVlDAD.pdf.
227. Jamie Alan Aycock, Contracting Out of the Culture Wars: How the Law Should Enforce and Communities of Faith Should Encourage More Enduring Marital Commitments, 30 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 231, 235 (2006)
228. http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2011/01/13/la-loi-pour-feminiser- la-direction-des-grandes-entreprises-adoptee-1465337-3234.html
229. Matej Hruska, EXJ to Consider Corporate Gender Quotas in 2011, EUObserver. com (Sep. 22, 2010), http://euobserver.eom/9/30857.
230. Dieter Sadowski et al., The German Model of Corporate and Labor Governance, 22 Comp. Lab. L. & Pol'y J. 33-36, n.11 (2000).
231. Jens C. Dammann, Freedom of Choice in European Corporate Law, 29 Yale J. Int'l L. 477-522, n.231 (2004)
232. Klaus H. Hopt, Comparative Corporate Governance: The State oj the Art and International Regulation, 59 Am. J. Comp. L. 1-23, (2011).
233. available at http://www.senat.fr/leg/ppl09-223.pdf
234. http://www.droitbelge.be/codes.asp#soc
235. C.Soc. art. 518 (Belg.)
236. http://www.lachambre.be/FLWB/pdf/53/0211/53K0211012.pdf.
237. C.Soc. art. 524 (Belg.).
238. C.Soc. art. 4 (Belg.). 310.
239. Linda A. Bell, Women-Led Firms and the Gender Gap in Executive Compensation 1 (Haverford Coll. Dep't Econ. Inst. Study Labor, Discussion Paper No. 16892005), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract-id= 773964.