Carbon monoxide - toxicity of low-dose application

Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology

Volumn 13, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 837-850

  Schmidt, Rene ^a   Ryan, Helen ^a   Hoetzel, Alexander ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FREIBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Carbon monoxide; Heme oxygenase; HO 1; Organ protection; Stress response; Toxicity

Indexed keywords

CARBON MONOXIDE; HEME OXYGENASE; OXYGEN;

APOPTOSIS; CARBON MONOXIDE INTOXICATION; CARDIOTOXICITY; CELL PROTECTION; FETOTOXICITY; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; LUNG TOXICITY; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; REVIEW;

EID: 84860533626     PISSN: 13892010     EISSN: 18734316     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/138920112800399103     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. Wu, L.; Wang, R. Carbon monoxide: endogenous production, physiological functions, and pharmacological applications. Pharmacol. Rev., 2005, 57(4), 585-630.
2. Kim, H.P.; Ryter, S.W.; Choi, A.M. CO as a cellular signaling molecule. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 2006, 46, 411-449.
3. Ryter, S.W.; Alam, J.; Choi, A.M. Heme oxygenase-1/carbon monoxide: from basic science to therapeutic applications. Physiol. Rev., 2006, 86(2), 583-650.
4. Tenhunen, R.; Marver, H.S.; Schmid, R. The enzymatic conversion of heme to bilirubin by microsomal heme oxygenase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1968, 61(2), 748-755.
5. Wolff, D.G. The formation of carbon monoxide during peroxidation of microsomal lipids. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1976, 73(4), 850-857.
6. Vreman, H.J.; Wong, R.J.; Stevenson, D.K.; Penney, D.G. Carbon Monoxide in Breath, Blood, and Other Tissues. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning. Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000: 19-60.
7. Coburn, R.F.; Blakemore, W.S.; Forster, R.E. Endogenous carbon monoxide production in man. J. Clin. Invest., 1963, 42, 1172-1178
8. Coburn, R.F.; Williams, W.J.; Kahn, S.B. Endogenous carbon monoxide production in patients with hemolytic anemia. J. Clin. Invest., 1966, 45(4), 460-468
9. Stewart, R.D. The effect of carbon monoxide on humans. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol., 1975, 15, 409-423.
10. Schmidt, R.; Baechle, T.; Hoetzel, A.; Loop, T.; Humar, M.; Roesslein, M.; Geiger, K.K.; Pannen, B.H. Dihydralazine treatment limits liver injury after hemorrhagic shock in rats. Crit. Care Med., 2006, 34(3), 815-822.
11. Schmidt, R.; Tritschler, E.; Hoetzel, A.; Loop, T.; Humar, M.; Halverscheid, L.; Geiger, K.K.; Pannen, B.H. Heme oxygenase-1 induction by the clinically used anesthetic isoflurane protects rat livers from ischemia/reperfusion injury. Ann. Surg., 2007, 245(6), 931-942.
12. Hoetzel, A.; Vagts, D.A.; Loop, T.; Humar, M.; Bauer, M.; Pahl, H.L.; Geiger, K.K.; Pannen, B.H. Effect of nitric oxide on shockinduced hepatic heme oxygenase-1 expression in the rat. Hepatology, 2001, 33(4), 925-937
13. Carraway, M.S.; Ghio, A.J.; Carter, J.D.; Piantadosi, C.A. Expression of heme oxygenase-1 in the lung in chronic hypoxia. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol., 2000, 278(4), L806-L812
14. Lee, P.J.; Alam, J.; Sylvester, S.L.; Inamdar, N.; Otterbein, L.; Choi, A.M. Regulation of heme oxygenase-1 expression in vivo and in vitro in hyperoxic lung injury. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol., 1996, 14(6), 556-568.
15. Koch, A.; Boehm, O.; Zacharowski, P.A.; Loer, S.A.; Weimann, J.; Rensing, H.; Foster, S.J.; Schmidt, R.; Berkels, R.; Reingruber, S.; Zacharowski, K. Inducible nitric oxide synthase and heme oxygenase-1 in the lung during lipopolysaccharide tolerance and cross tolerance. Crit. Care Med., 2007, 35(12),2775-2784.
16. Yachie, A.; Niida, Y.; Wada, T.; Igarashi, N.; Kaneda, H.; Toma, T.; Ohta, K.; Kasahara, Y.; Koizumi, S. Oxidative stress causes enhanced endothelial cell injury in human heme oxygenase-1 deficiency. J. Clin. Invest, 1999, 103(1), 129-135
17. Kawashima, A.; Oda, Y.; Yachie, A.; Koizumi, S.; Nakanishi, I. Heme oxygenase-1 deficiency: the first autopsy case. Hum. Pathol., 2002, 33(1), 125-130
18. Verma, A.; Hirsch, D.J.; Glatt, C.E.; Ronnett, G.; Snyder, S.H. Carbon monoxide: a putative neural messenger [see comments]
19. Suematsu, M.; Goda, N.; Sano, T.; Kashiwagi, S.; Egawa, T.; Shinoda, Y.; Ishimura, Y. Carbon monoxide: an endogenous modulator of sinusoidal tone in the perfused rat liver. J. Clin. Invest., 1995, 96(5), 2431-2437.
20. Sammut, I.A.; Foresti, R.; Clark, J.E.; Exon, D.J.; Vesely, M.J.; Sarathchandra, P.; Green, C.J.; Motterlini, R. Carbon monoxide is a major contributor to the regulation of vascular tone in aortas expressing high levels of haeme oxygenase-1. Br. J. Pharmacol., 1998, 125(7), 1437-1444.
21. Nakao, A.; Toyokawa, H.; Tsung, A.; Nalesnik, M.A.; Stolz, D.B.; Kohmoto, J.; Ikeda, A.; Tomiyama, K.; Harada, T.; Takahashi, T.; Yang, R.; Fink, M.P.; Morita, K.; Choi, A.M.; Murase, N. Ex vivo application of carbon monoxide in University of Wisconsin solution to prevent intestinal cold ischemia/reperfusion injury. Am. J. Transplant., 2006, 6(10), 2243-2255
22. Motterlini, R.; Mann, B.E.; Foresti, R. Therapeutic applications of carbon monoxide-releasing molecules. Expert. Opin. Investig. Drugs, 2005, 14(11), 1305-1318
23. Motterlini, R.; Otterbein, L. E. The therapeutic potential of carbon monoxide. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov., 2010, 9(9), 728-743
24. Wunder, C.; Brock, R.W.; Frantz, S.; Gottsch, W.; Morawietz, H.; Roewer, N.; Eichelbronner, O. Carbon monoxide, but not endothelin-1, plays a major role for the hepatic microcirculation in a murine model of early systemic inflammation. Crit. Care Med., 2005, 33(10), 2323-2331.
25. Nakao, A.; Schmidt, J.; Harada, T.; Tsung, A.; Stoffels, B.; Cruz, R.J. Jr.; Kohmoto, J.; Peng, X.; Tomiyama, K.; Murase, N.; Bauer, A.J.; Fink, M.P. A single intraperitoneal dose of carbon monoxidesaturated ringer's lactate solution ameliorates postoperative ileus in mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 2006, 319(3), 1265-1275.
26. Omaye, S.T. Metabolic modulation of carbon monoxide toxicity. Toxicology, 2002, 180(2), 139-150.
27. Raub, J.A.; Mathieu-Nolf, M.; Hampson, N.B.; Thom, S.R. Carbon monoxide poisoning--a public health perspective. Toxicology, 2000, 145(1), 1-14.
28. Roughton, F.J. The equilibrium of carbon monoxide with human hemoglobin in whole blood. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1970, 174(1), 177-188.
29. Douglas, C.G.; Haldane, J.S.; Haldane, J.B. The laws of combination of haemoglobin with carbon monoxide and oxygen. J. Physiol., 1912, 44(4), 275-304.
30. Deutsche, F. List of MAK and BAT Values 1997. First Edition ed. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 1997.
31. National Research, C. Emergency and continuous exposure guidance levels for selected contaminants. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academy Press, 1985.
32. American Conference of Governmental Industrial, H. Threshold limit values and biological exposure indices for 1995-1996. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 1995.
33. National Institute for Occupational Safety and, H. NIOSH recommendations for occupational safety and health care standards: compendium of policy documents and statements. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 1992.
34. Jarvik, M.E. In: National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series. Krasnegor NA, ed. Biological Influences on Cigarette Smoking. Rockville: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1979, 7-46.
35. Butt, J.; Davies, G.M.; Jones, J.G.; Sinclair, A. Carboxyhaemoglobin levels in blast furnace workers. Ann. Occup. Hyg., 1974, 17(1), 57-63.
36. Von Burg, R. Carbon monoxide. [Review] [78 refs]. J. Appl. Toxicol., 1999, 19(5), 379-386.
37. Ryter, S.W.; Otterbein, L.E. Carbon monoxide in biology and medicine. Bioessays, 2004, 26(3), 270-280.
38. Gorbatow, O.; Noro, L. Acclimatization in connection with acute carbon monoxide poisonings. Acta Physiol. Scand., 1948, 15(15), 77-87.
39. Killick, E.M. The acclimatization of mice to atmospheres containing low concentrations of carbon monoxide. J. Physiol., 1937, 91(3), 279-292.
40. Campbell, J.A. Tissue oxygen tension and carbon monoxide poisoning. J. Physiol, 1929, 68(2), 81-96.
41. Killick, E.M. The acclimatization of the human subject to atmospheres containing low concentrations of carbon monoxide. J. Physiol., 1936, 87(1), 41-55.
42. Killick, E.M. The nature of the acclimatization occurring during repeated exposure of the human subject to atmospheres containing low concentrations of carbon monoxide. J. Physiol., 1948, 107(1), 27-44.
43. O'Hanlon, J.F.; Weiss, B.; Laties, G. Preliminary studies of the effects of carbon monoxide on vigilance in man. Behavioral Toxicology. New York: Plenum Press, 1975, 61-75.
44. Raven, P.B.; Drinkwater, B.L.; Ruhling, R.O.; Bolduan, N.; Taguchi, S.; Gliner, J.; Horvath, S.M. Effect of carbon monoxide and peroxyacetyl nitrate on man's maximal aerobic capacity. J. Appl. Physiol., 1974, 36(3), 288-293.
45. Aronow, W.S.; Cassidy, J. Effect of carbon monoxide on maximal treadmill exercise. A study in normal persons. Ann. Intern. Med., 1975, 83(4), 496-499.
46. Ekblom, B.; Huot, R. Response to submaximal and maximal exercise at different levels of carboxyhemoglobin. Acta Physiol. Scand., 1972, 86(4), 474-482.
47. Vogel, J.A.; Gleser, M.A.; Wheeler, R.C.; Whitten, B.K. Carbon monoxide and physical work capacity. Arch. Environ. Health, 1972, 24(3), 198-203.
48. Horvath, S.M.; Raven, P.B.; Dahms, T.E.; Gray, D.J. Maximal aerobic capacity at different levels of carboxyhemoglobin. J. Appl. Physiol., 1975, 38(2), 300-303.
49. Aronow, W.S.; Schlueter, W.J.; Williams, M.A.; Petratis, M.; Sketch, M.H. Aggravation of exercise performance in patients with anemia by 3% carboxyhemoglobin. Environ. Res., 1984, 35(2), 394-398.
50. Piantadosi, C.A.; Zhang, J.; Levin, E.D.; Folz, R.J.; Schmechel, D.E. Apoptosis and delayed neuronal damage after carbon monoxide poisoning in the rat. Exp. Neurol., 1997, 147(1), 103-114.
51. Weaver, L.K. Clinical practice. Carbon monoxide poisoning. N. Engl. J. Med., 2009, 360(12), 1217-1225.
52. Uemura, K.; Harada, K.; Sadamitsu, D.; Tsuruta, R.; Takahashi, M.; Aki, T.; Yasuhara, M.; Maekawa, T.; Yoshida, K. Apoptotic and necrotic brain lesions in a fatal case of carbon monoxide poisoning. Forensic Sci. Int., 2001, 116(2-3), 213-219.
53. Nakatome, M.; Matoba, R.; Ogura, Y.; Tun, Z.; Iwasa, M.; Maeno, Y.; Koyama, H.; Nakamura, Y.; Inoue, H. Detection of cardiomyocyte apoptosis in forensic autopsy cases. Int. J. Legal Med., 2002, 116(1), 17-21.
54. Song, R.; Zhou, Z.; Kim, P.K.; Shapiro, R.A.; Liu, F.; Ferran, C.; Choi, A.M.; Otterbein, L.E. Carbon monoxide promotes Fas/CD95-induced apoptosis in Jurkat cells. J. Biol. Chem., 2004, 279(43), 44327-44334.
55. Thom, S.R.; Fisher, D.; Xu, Y.A.; Notarfrancesco; Ischiropoulos H. Adaptive responses and apoptosis in endothelial cells exposed to carbon monoxide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2000, 97(3), 1305-1310.
56. Song, R.; Kubo, M.; Morse, D.; Zhou, Z.; Zhang, X.; Dauber, J.H.; Fabisiak, J.; Alber, S.M.; Watkins, S.C.; Zuckerbraun, B.S.; Otterbein, L.E.; Ning, W.; Oury, T.D.; Lee, P.J.; McCurry, K.R.; Choi, A.M. Carbon monoxide induces cytoprotection in rat orthotopic lung transplantation via anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic effects. Am. J. Pathol., 2003, 163(1), 231-242.
57. Zhang, X.; Shan, P.; Otterbein, L.E.; Alam, J.; Flavell, R.A.; Davis, R.J.; Choi, A.M.; Lee, P.J. Carbon monoxide inhibition of apoptosis during ischemia-reperfusion lung injury is dependent on the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and involves caspase 3. J. Biol. Chem., 2003, 278(2), 1248-1258.
58. Sass, G.; Soares, M.C.; Yamashita, K.; Seyfried, S.; Zimmermann, W.H.; Eschenhagen, T.; Kaczmarek, E.; Ritter, T.; Volk, H.D.; Tiegs, G. Heme oxygenase-1 and its reaction product, carbon monoxide, prevent inflammation-related apoptotic liver damage in mice. Hepatology, 2003, 38(4), 909-918.
59. Brouard, S.; Otterbein, L.E.; Anrather, J.; Tobiasch, E.; Bach, F.H.; Choi, A.M.; Soares, M.P. Carbon monoxide generated by heme oxygenase 1 suppresses endothelial cell apoptosis. J. Exp. Med., 2000, 192(7), 1015-1026.
60. Akamatsu, Y.; Haga, M.; Tyagi, S.; Yamashita, K.; Graca-Souza, A.V.; Ollinger, R.; Czismadia, E.; May, G.A.; Ifedigbo, E.; Otterbein, L.E.; Bach, F.H.; Soares, M.P. Heme oxygenase-1-derived carbon monoxide protects hearts from transplant associated ischemia reperfusion injury. FASEB J., 2004, 18(6), 771-772.
61. Thom, S.R.; Keim, L.W. Carbon monoxide poisoning: a review epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical findings, and treatment options including hyperbaric oxygen therapy. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol., 1989, 27(3), 141-156.
62. Smith, J.S.; Brandon, S. Morbidity from acute carbon monoxide poisoning at three-year follow-up. Br. Med. J., 1973, 1(5849), 318-321.
63. Min, S.K. A brain syndrome associated with delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae following acute carbon monoxide intoxication. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 1986, 73(1), 80-86.
64. Choi, I.S. Delayed neurologic sequelae in carbon monoxide intoxication. Arch. Neurol., 1983, 40(7), 433-435.
65. Thom, S.R.; Bhopale, V.M.; Fisher, D.; Zhang, J.; Gimotty, P. Delayed neuropathology after carbon monoxide poisoning is immune-mediated. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2004, 101(37), 13660-13665.
66. Ischiropoulos, H.; Beers, M.F.; Ohnishi, S.T.; Fisher, D.; Garner, S.E.; Thom, S.R. Nitric oxide production and perivascular nitration in brain after carbon monoxide poisoning in the rat. J. Clin. Invest., 1996, 97(10), 2260-2267.
67. Raub, J.A.; Benignus, V.A. Carbon monoxide and the nervous system. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2002, 26(8), 925-940.
68. Laties, V.G.; Merigan, W.H. Behavioral effects of carbon monoxide on animals and man. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 1979, 19, 357-392.
69. Putz, V.R.; Johnson, B.L.; Setzer, J.V. A comparative study of the effects of carbon monoxide and methylene chloride on human performance. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol., 1979, 2(5), 97-112.
70. Horvath, S.M.; Dahms, T.E.; O'Hanlon, J.F. Carbon monoxide and human vigilance. A deleterious effect of present urban concentrations. Arch. Environ. Health, 1971, 23(5), 343-347.
71. Christensen, C.L.; Gliner, J.A.; Horvath, S.M.; Wagner, J.A. Effects of three kinds of hypoxias on vigilance performance. Aviat. Space Environ. Med., 1977, 48(6), 491-496
72. Davies, D.M.; Jolly, E.J.; Pethybridge, R.J.; Colquhoun, W.P. The effects of continuous exposure to carbon monoxide on auditory vigilance in man. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 1981, 48(1), 25-34.
73. Benignus, V.A.; Kafer, E.R.; Muller, K.E.; Case, M.W. Absence of symptoms with carboxyhemoglobin levels of 16-23%. Neurotoxicol. Teratol., 1987, 9(5), 345-348.
74. Benignus, V.A.; Otto, D.A.; Prah, J.D.; Benignus, G. Lack of effects of carbon monoxide on human vigilance. Percept. Mot. Skills, 1977, 45(3 Pt 1), 1007-1014.
75. Ramsey, J.M. Carbon monoxide, tissue hypoxia, and sensory psychomotor response in hypoxaemic subjects. Clin. Sci., 1972, 42(5), 619-625.
76. Ramsey, J.M. Effects of single exposures of carbon monoxide on sensory and psychomotor response. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 1973, 34(5), 212-216
77. Ray, A.M.; Rockwell, T.H. An exploratory study of automobile driving performance under the influence of low levels of carboxyhemoglobin. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1970, 174(1), 396-408.
78. Beard, R.R.; Grandstaff, N.W.; B. Weiss V.G.L. Carbon monoxide and human functions. Behavioral Toxicology. New York: Plenum Press, 1975.
79. Aronow, W.S.; Charter, R.; Seacat, G. Effect of 4% carboxyhemoglobin on human performance in cardiac patients. Prev. Med., 1979, 8(5), 562-566.
80. Luria, S.M.; McKay, C.L. Effects of low levels of carbon monoxide on visions of smokers and nonsmokers. Arch. Environ. Health, 1979, 34(1), 38-44.
81. Benignus, V.A.; Muller, K.E.; Barton, C.N.; Prah, J.D. Effect of low level carbon monoxide on compensatory tracking and event monitoring. Neurotoxicol. Teratol., 1987, 9(3), 227-234.
82. Mikulka, P.; O'Donnell, R.; Heinig, P.; Theodore, J. The effect of carbon monoxide on human performance. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1970, 174(1), 409-420.
83. O'Donnell, R.D.; Mikulka, P.; Heinig, P.; Theodore, J. Low level carbon monoxide exposure and human psychomotor performance. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 1971, 18(3), 593-602.
84. Benignus, V.A. Behavioral effects of carbon monoxide: meta analyses and extrapolations. J. Appl. Physiol., 1994, 76(3), 1310-1316.
85. Gandini, C.; Castoldi, A.F.; Candura, S.M.; Locatelli, C.; Butera, R.; Priori, S.; Manzo, L. Carbon monoxide cardiotoxicity. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol., 2001, 39(1), 35-44.
86. Takano, T.; Miyazaki, Y.; Shimoyama, H.; Maeda, H.; Okeda, R.; Funata, N. Direct effects of carbon monoxide on cardiac function. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 1981, 49(1), 35-40.
87. Allred, E.N.; Bleecker, E.R.; Chaitman, B.R.; Dahms, T.E.; Gottlieb, S.O.; Hackney, J.D.; Pagano, M.; Selvester, R.H.; Walden, S.M.; Warren, J. Short-term effects of carbon monoxide exposure on the exercise performance of subjects with coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 1989, 321(21), 1426-1432.
88. Aronow, W.S. Aggravation of angina pectoris by two percent carboxyhemoglobin. Am. Heart J., 1981, 101(2), 154-157.
89. Kleinman, M.T.; Leaf, D.A.; Kelly, E.; Caiozzo, V.; Osann, K.; O'Niell, T. Urban angina in the mountains: effects of carbon monoxide and mild hypoxemia on subjects with chronic stable angina. Arch. Environ. Health, 1998, 53(6), 388-397.
90. Sheps, D.S.; Herbst, M.C.; Hinderliter, A.L.; Adams, K.F.; Ekelund, L.G.; O'Neil, J.J.; Goldstein, G.M.; Bromberg, P.A.; Dalton, J.L.; Ballenger, M.N. Production of arrhythmias by elevated carboxyhemoglobin in patients with coronary artery disease. Ann. Intern. Med., 1990, 113(5), 343-351.
91. Hinderliter, A.L.; Adams, K.F. Jr.; Price, C.J.; Herbst, M.C.; Koch, G.; Sheps, D.S. Effects of low-level carbon monoxide exposure on resting and exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias in patients with coronary artery disease and no baseline ectopy. Arch. Environ. Health, 1989, 44(2), 89-93
92. Dahms, T.E.; Younis, L.T.; Wiens, R.D.; Zarnegar, S.; Byers, S.L.; Chaitman, B.R. Effects of carbon monoxide exposure in patients with documented cardiac arrhythmias. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 1993, 21(2), 442-450
93. Davies, D.M.; Smith, D.J. Electrocardiographic changes in healthy men during continuous low-level carbon monoxide exposure. Environ. Res., 1980, 21(1), 197-206
94. Mayr, F.B.; Spiel, A.; Leitner, J.; Marsik, C.; Germann, P.; Ullrich, R.; Wagner, O.; Jilma, B. Effects of carbon monoxide inhalation during experimental endotoxemia in humans. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2005, 171(4), 354-360.
95. Zhou, Z.; Song, R.; Fattman, C.L.; Greenhill, S.; Alber, S.; Oury, T.D.; Choi, A.M.; Morse, D. Carbon monoxide suppresses bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis. Am. J. Pathol., 2005, 166(1), 27-37.
96. Dolinay, T.; Szilasi, M.; Liu, M.; Choi, A.M. Inhaled carbon monoxide confers antiinflammatory effects against ventilatorinduced lung injury. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2004, 170(6), 613-620.
97. Chapman, J.T.; Otterbein, L.E.; Elias J.A.; Choi A.M. Carbon monoxide attenuates aeroallergen-induced inflammation in mice. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol., 2001, 281(1), L209-216.
98. Fujita, T.; Toda, K.; Karimova, A.; Yan, S.F.; Naka, Y.; Yet, S.F.; Pinsky D.J. Paradoxical rescue from ischemic lung injury by inhaled carbon monoxide driven by derepression of fibrinolysis. Nat. Med., 2001, 7(5), 598-604.
99. Zuckerbraun, B.S.; Chin, B.Y.; Wegiel, B.; Billiar, T.R.; Czsimadia, E.; Rao, J.; Shimoda, L.; Ifedigbo, E.; Kanno, S.; Otterbein, L.E. Carbon monoxide reverses established pulmonary hypertension. J. Exp. Med., 2006, 203(9), 2109-2119.
100. Thom, S.R.; Ohnishi, S.T.; Fisher D.; Xu Y.A.; Ischiropoulos, H. Pulmonary vascular stress from carbon monoxide. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 1999, 154(1), 12-19.
101. Agency, U.E.P. Air quality criteria for carbon monoxide. 2000, EPA 600/P-99/001F
102. Schwetz, B.A.; Smith, F.A.; Leong, B.K.; Staples, R.E. Teratogenic potential of inhaled carbon monoxide in mice and rabbits. Teratology, 1979, 19(3), 385-392.
103. Astrup, P.; Olsen, H.M.; Trolle, D.; Kjeldsen, K. Effect of moderate carbon-monoxide exposure on fetal development. Lancet, 1972, 2(7789), 1220-1222.
104. Singh, J.; Scott, L.H. Threshold for carbon monoxide induced fetotoxicity. Teratology, 1984, 30(2), 253-257
105. Carratu, M.R.; Cagiano, R.; De Salvia, M.A.; Trabace, L.; Cuomo, V. Developmental neurotoxicity of carbon monoxide. Arch. Toxicol. Suppl., 1995, 17, 295-301.
106. Sartiani, L.; Cerbai, E.; Lonardo, G.; DePaoli, P.; Tattoli, M.; Cagiano, R.; Carratu, M.R.; Cuomo, V.; Mugelli, A. Prenatal exposure to carbon monoxide affects postnatal cellular electrophysiological maturation of the rat heart: a potential substrate for arrhythmogenesis in infancy. Circulation, 2004, 109(3), 419-423.
107. Bathoorn, E.; Slebos, D.J.; Postma, D.S.; Koeter, G.H.; van Oosterhout, A.J.; van der Toorn, M.; Boezen, H.M.; Kerstjens, H.A. Anti-inflammatory effects of inhaled carbon monoxide in patients with COPD: a pilot study. Eur. Respir. J., 2007, 30(6), 1131-1137.
108. WHO. International Clinical Trials Registry Platform. http://apps.who.int/trialsearch/ (Assessed December 28, 2010)
109. Von Burg, R. Carbon monoxide. J. Appl. Toxicol., 1999, 19(5), 379-386
110. Peterson, J.E.; Stewart, R.D. Predicting the carboxyhemoglobin levels resulting from carbon monoxide exposures. J. Appl. Physiol., 1975, 39(4), 633-638
111. Subcommittee on Emergency and Continuous Exposure Guidance Levels for Selected Submarine Contaminants, C.o.T., National Research Council. Carbon Monoxide. Emergency and Continuous Exposure Guidance Levels for Selected Submarine Contaminants. Washington, DC: The National Academy Press, 2004.
112. Wong, K.L.; Subcommittee on Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations C.o.T.B.o.E.S.a.T.N.R.C. Carbon monoxide. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants, 1994: 61-90.
113. CoTBoESaTNRC, S.o.S.E.A.L. Carbon Monoxide. Review of Submariners Escape Action Levels for Selected Chemicals. Washington, DC: The National Academy Press, 2002.
114. Eckardt, R.E.; MacFarland, H.N.; Alarie, Y.C.; Busey, W.M. The biologic effect from long-term exposure of primates to carbon monoxide. Arch. Environ. Health, 1972, 25(6), 381-387.
115. Jones, R.A.; Strickland, J.A.; Stunkard, J.A.; Siegel, J. Effects on experimental animals of long-term inhalation exposure to carbon monoxide. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 1971, 19(1), 46-53.
116. Aronow, W.S.; Stemmer, E.A.; Zweig, S. Carbon monoxide and ventricular fibrillation threshold in normal dogs. Arch. Environ. Health, 1979, 34(3), 184-186.
117. DeBias, D.A.; Banerjee, C.M.; Birkhead, N.C.; Greene, C.H.; Scott, S.D.; Harrer, W.V. Effects of carbon monoxide inhalation on ventricular fibrillation. Arch. Environ. Health, 1976, 31(1), 42-46.
118. Preziosi, T.J.; Lindenberg, R.; Levy, D.; Christenson, M. An experimental investigation in animals of the functional and morphologic effects of single and repeated exposures to high and low concentrations of carbon monoxide. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1970, 174(1), 369-384.
119. Bing, R.J.; Sarma, J.S.; Weishaar, R.; Rackl, A.; Pawlik, G. Biochemical and histological effects of intermittent carbon monoxide exposure in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) in relation to atherosclerosis. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1980, 20(8-9), 487-499.
120. Eurich, W.E.; Bellet, S.; Lewey, F.H. Cardiac changes from CO poisoning. Am. J. Med. Sci., 1944, 208, 511-523
121. DeBias, D.A.; Birkhead, N.C.; Banerjee, C.M.; Kazal, L.A.; Holburn, R.R.; Greene, C.H.; Harrer W.V.; Rosenfeld, L.M.; Menduke, H.; Williams, N.; Friedman, M.H. The effects of chronic exposure to carbon monoxide on the cardiovascular and hematologic systems in dogs with experimental myocardial infarction. Int. Arch. Arbeitsmed., 1972, 29(3), 253-267.
122. DeBias, D.A.; Banerjee, C.M.; Birkhead, N.C.; Harrer, W.V.; Kazal, L.A. Carbon monoxide inhalation effects following myocardial infarction in monkeys. Arch. Environ. Health, 1973, 27(3), 161-167.
123. 3rd.; Hill, J.; McNulty, W.P. Failure of carbon monoxide to induce myocardial infarction in cholesterol-fed cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Cardiovasc. Res., 1976, 10(1), 101-108.
124. Mullin, L.S.; Krivanek, N.D. Comparison of unconditioned reflex and conditioned avoidance tests in rats exposed by inhalation to carbon monoxide, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, toluene or ethanol. Neurotoxicology, 1982, 3(1), 126-137.
125. Purser, D.A.; Berrill, K.R. Effects of carbon monoxide on behavior in monkeys in relation to human fire hazard. Arch. Environ. Health, 1983, 38(5), 308-315.
126. Theodore, J.; O'Donnell, R.D.; Back, K.C. Toxicological evaluation of carbon monoxide in humans and other mammalian species. J. Occup. Med., 1971, 13(5), 242-255.
127. Shiotsuka, R.N.; Drew, R.T.; Wehner, R.W. Carbon monoxide enhances development of hypertension in Dahl rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 1984, 76(2), 225-233.
128. Annau, Z. Complex maze performance during carbon monoxide exposure in rats. Neurotoxicol. Teratol., 1987, 9(2), 151-155.
129. Vyskocil, A.; Tusl, M.; Zaydlar, K. The effect of carbon monoxide on hormone levels and organ weights in rats. J. Appl. Toxicol., 1986, 6(6), 443-446.
130. Vyskocil, A.; Tusl, M.; Zaydlar, K. The effect of chronic exposure to 0.005% CO on hormone levels in brain and blood, and organ weights in rats. J. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immunol., 1984, 28(4), 377-382.
131. Fechter, L.D.; Karpa, M.D.; Proctor, B.; Lee, A.G.; Storm, J.E. Disruption of neostriatal development in rats following perinatal exposure to mild, but chronic carbon monoxide. Neurotoxicol. Teratol., 1987, 9(4), 277-281.
132. McGrath, J.J. Body and organ weights of rats exposed to carbon monoxide at high altitude. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, 1988, 23(3), 303-310.
133. Stupfel, M.; Bouley, G. Physiological and biochemical effects on rats and mice exposed to small concentrations of carbon monoxide for long periods. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1970, 174(1), 342-368.
134. Horvath, S.M. Impact of air quality in exercise performance. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev., 1981, 9, 265-296.
135. Chevalier, R.B.; Krumholz, R.A.; Ross, J.C. Reaction of nonsmokers to carbon monoxide inhalation. Cardiopulmonary responses at rest and during exercise. JAMA, 1966, 198(10), 1061-1064.
136. Pirnay, F.; Dujardin, J.; Deroanne, R.; Petit, J.M. Muscular exercise during intoxication by carbon monoxide. J. Appl. Physiol, 1971, 31(4), 573-575.
137. Drinkwater, B.L.; Raven, P.B.; Horvath, S.M.; Gliner, J.A.; Ruhling, R.O.; Bolduan, N.W.; Taguchi, S. Air pollution, exercise, and heat stress. Arch. Environ. Health, 1974, 28(4), 177-181.
138. Putz, V.R.; Johnson, B.L.; Setzer, J.V. Effects of CO on vigilance performance: effects of low level carbon monoxide on divided attention, pitch discrimination, and the autidory evoked potential. DHEW publ. No. (NIOSH). Cincinnati, OH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1976: 77-124.
139. Klein, J.P.; Forster, H.V.; Stewart, R.D.; Wu, A. Hemoglobin affinity for oxygen during short-term exhaustive exercise. J. Appl. Physiol., 1980, 48(2), 236-242
140. Mihevic, P.M.; Gliner, J.A.; Horvath, S.M. Carbon monoxide exposure and information processing during perceptual-motor performance. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 1983, 51(4), 355-363.
141. Bender, W.; Gothert, M.; Malorny, G.; Sebbesse, P. Effects of low carbon monoxide concentrations in man. Arch. Toxikol., 1971, 27(2), 142-158.
142. Wright, G.; Randell, P.; Shephard, R.J. Carbon monoxide and driving skills. Arch. Environ. Health, 1973, 27(6), 349-354.
143. DeLucia, A.J.; Whitaker, J.H.; Bryant, L.R.; Lee, S.D.; Mustafa, M.G.; Mehlman, M.A. Effects of combined exposure to ozone and carbon monoxide (CO) in humans. Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton, 1983: 145-159.
144. McFarland, R.A. Low level exposure to carbon monoxide and driving performance. Arch. Environ. Health, 1973, 27(6), 355-359.
145. Bunnell, D.E.; Horvath, S.M. Interactive effects of heat, physical work, and CO exposure on metabolism and cognitive task performance. Aviat. Space Environ. Med., 1989, 60(5), 428-432.
146. Stewart, R.D.; Peterson, J.E.; Baretta, E.D.; Bachand, R.T.; Hosko, M.J.; Herrmann, A.A. Experimental human exposure to carbon monoxide. Arch. Environ. Health, 1970, 21(2), 154-164.
147. Ettema, J.H.; Zielhuis, R.L.; Burer, E.; Meier, H.A.; Kleerekoper, L.; de Graaf, M.A. Effects of alcohol, carbon monoxide and trichloroethylene exposure on mental capacity. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 1975, 35(2), 117-132.
148. Hudnell, H.K.; Benignus V.A. Carbon monoxide exposure and human visual detection thresholds. Neurotoxicol. Teratol., 1989, 11(4), 363-371.
149. Stewart, R.D.; Newton, P.E.; Hosko, M.J.; Peterson, J.E. Effect of carbon monoxide on time perception. Arch. Environ. Health, 1973, 27(3), 155-160.
150. Schulte, J.H. Effects of mild carbon monoxide intoxication. Arch. Environ. Health, 1963, 7, 524-530.
151. DiMarco, A.T. Carbon monoxide poisoning presenting as polycythemia. N. Engl. J. Med., 1988, 319(13), 874.
152. Beard, R.R.; Wertheim, G.A. Behavioral impairment associated with small doses of carbon monoxide. Am. J. Public Health Nations Health, 1967, 57(11), 2012-2022.
153. Hanks, T.G. Human performance of a psychomotor test as a function of exposure to carbon monoxide. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1970, 174(1), 421-424.