Optimal Self-esteem is Contingent: Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic and Upward Versus Downward Contingencies

European Journal of Personality

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 182-193

  Vonk, Roos ^a   Smit, Hilde ^a  

^a RADBOUD UNIVERSITY NIJMEGEN   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Authenticity; Contingent self esteem; Psychological well being; Self compassion; Self determination; Self esteem

Indexed keywords

EID: 84859808891     PISSN: 08902070     EISSN: 10990984     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/per.817     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Aberson, C. L., Healy, M., & Romero, V.(2000).Ingroup bias and self-esteem: A meta-analysis.Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 157-173.
2. Arbuckle, J. L., & Wothke, W.(1999).Amos 4.0 users's guide.Chicago, IL:SmallWaters.
3. Baumeister, R. F.(1998).The self. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th edition, pp.680-740.).New York:McGraw-Hill.
4. Baumeister, R. F., Bushman, B. J., & Campbell, W. K.(2000).Self-esteem, narcissism, and aggression: Does violence result from low self-esteem or from threatened egotism?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 141-156.
5. Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D.(2003).Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles?Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 1-44.
6. Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M.(1996).Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.Psychological Review, 103, 5-33.
7. Bentler, P. M.(1983).Some contributions to efficient statistics for structural models: Specification and estimation of moment structures.Psychometrika, 48, 493-571.
8. Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G.(1980).Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures.Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588-606.
9. Blaine, B., & Crocker, J.(1993).Self-esteem and self-serving biases in reactions to positive and negative events: An integrative review. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard (pp.55-85).New York:Plenum Press.
10. Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F.(1998).Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219-229.
11. Brandt, A. C., & Vonk, R.(2006).Who do you think you are? On the link between self-knowledge and self-esteem. In M. Kernis (Ed.), Self-esteem: Issues and answers (pp.224-229).New York:Psychology Press.
12. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R.(1993).Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen, & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp.136-162).Newbury Park, CA:Sage.
13. Crocker, J.(2002).Contingencies of self-worth: Implications for self-regulation and psychological vulnerability.Self and Identity, 1, 143-149.
14. Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., & Bouvrette, S.(2003).Contingencies of self-worth in college students: Theory and measurement.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 894-908.
15. Crocker, J., & Park, L. E.(2004).The costly pursuit of self-esteem.Psychological Bulletin, 130, 392-414.
16. Crocker, J., Sommers, S. R., & Luhtanen, R. K.(2002).Hopes dashed and dreams fulfilled: Contingencies of self-worth and admissions to graduate school.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1275-1286.
17. Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T.(2001).Contingencies of self-worth.Psychological Review, 108, 593-623.
18. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M.(1985).Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior.New York:Plenum Publishing Co.
19. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M.(1995).Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp.31-49).New York:Plenum Press.
20. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M.(2000).The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior.Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268.
21. Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A.(1984).The independence of positive and negative affect.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1105-1117.
22. Fein, S., & Spencer, S. J.(1997).Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 31-44.
23. Gilovich, T., Kruger, J., & Savitsky, K.(1999).Everyday egocentrism and everyday interpersonal problems. In R. Kowalski, & M. Leary (Eds.), The social psychology of emotional and behavioral problems: Interfaces of social and clinical psychology (pp.69-95).Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.
24. Goldman, B. M., & Kernis, M. H.(2001).The Authenticity Scale. Unpublished questionnaire.
25. Goldman, B. M., & Kernis, M. H.(2002).The role of authenticity in healthy psychological functioning and subjective well-being.Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 5, 18-20.
26. Greenwald, A. G.(1980).The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history.American Psychologist, 35, 603-618.
27. Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J.(1991).Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 895-910.
28. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M.(1998).Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification.Psychological Methods, 3, 424-453.
29. Jansen, D. L., & Vonk, R.(2005).Contingente zelfwaardering: Betrouwbaarheid en validiteit van de Nederlandse globale en domeinspecifieke contingentieschaal. [Contingent self-esteem: Reliability and validity of the Dutch global and domain-specific contingency scales].Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie [Dutch Journal of Psychology], 60, 1-14.
30. Jongenelen, M., & Vonk, R.(2007).Individuele verschillen in graaigedrag: De rol van entitlement, machtsmisbruik en sociale waarde-oriëntatie. [Individual differences in grabbing behavior: The role of entitlement, power misuse, and social value orientation].Gedrag en Organisatie [Behavior and Organization], 20, 370-381.
31. Kernis, M. H.(2003).Optimal self-esteem and authenticity: Separating fantasy from reality.Psychological Inquiry, 14, 83-89.
32. Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T.(1993).There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.
33. Kernis, M. H., Grannemann, B., & Barclay, L.(1989).Stability and levels of self-esteem as predictors of anger arousal and hostility.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 1013-1022.
34. Kernis, M. H., Lakey, C. E., & Heppner, W. L.(2008).Secure versus fragile high self-esteem as a predictor of verbal defensiveness: Converging findings across three different markers.Journal of Personality, 27, 477-511.
35. Kernis, M. H., & Waschull, S. B.(1995).The interactive roles of stability and level of self-esteem: Research and theory. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 27, pp.93-141).San Diego:Academic Press.
36. Koestner, R., Lekes, N., Powers, T. A., & Chicoine, E.(2002).Attaining personal goals: Self-concordance plus implementation intentions equals success.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 231-244.
37. Leary, M. R.(2002).The self as a source of relational difficulties.Self and Identity, 1, 137-142.
38. Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Batts-Allen, A., & Hancock, J.(2007).Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 887-904.
39. Martin, L. L.(1999).I-D compensation theory: Some implications of trying to satisfy immediate-return needs in a delayed-return culture.Psychological Inquiry, 10, 195-209.
40. Myers, D. G., & Diener, E.(1995).Who is happy.Psychological Science, 6, 10-19.
41. Neff, K.(2003).The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion.Self and Identity, 2, 223-250.
42. Neff, K., & Vonk, R.(2009).Self-compassion versus global self-esteem: Two different ways of relating to the self.Journal of Personality, 77, 23-50.
43. Neighbors, C., Larimer, M. E., Geisner, I. M., & Knee, C. R.(2004).Feeling controlled and drinking motives among college students: Contingent self-esteem as a mediator.Self and Identity, 3, 207-224.
44. Paradise, A. W., & Kernis, M. H.(1999).Development of the Contingent Self-Esteem Scale.University of Georgia (unpublished data).
45. Rosenberg, M.(1965).Society and the adolescent self-image.Princeton, NJ:Princeton Press.
46. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L.(2000).Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
47. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L.(2001).To be happy or to be self-fulfilled: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. In S. Fiske (Ed.), Annual review of psychology (Vol. 52, pp.141-166).Palo Alto, CA:Annual Reviews, Inc.
48. Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M.(1995).The structure of psychological well-being revisited.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719-727.
49. Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B.(2000).Interpersonal flourishing: A positive health agenda for the new millennium.Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 30-44.
50. Sargent, J. T., Crocker, J., & Luthanen, R. K.(2006).Contingencies of self-worth and depressive symptoms in college students.Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25, 628-646.
51. Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J.(1999).Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 482-497.
52. Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Kasser, T.(2004).The independent effects of goal contents and motives on well-being: It's both what you pursue and why you pursue it.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 475-486.
53. Stöber, J.(2001).The Social Desirability Scale-17 (SDS-17) - Convergent validity, discriminant validity, and relationship with age.European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17, 222-232.
54. Tafarodi, R. W., & Swann, W. B., Jr.(1995).Self-liking and self-competence as dimensions of global self-esteem: Initial validation of a measure.Journal of Personality Assessment, 65, 322-342.
55. Tafarodi, R. W., & Swann, W. B.(2001).Two-dimensional self-esteem: Theory and measurement.Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 653-673.
56. Tangney, J. P., Hill-Barlow, D., Wagner, P. E., Marschall, D. E., Borenstein, J. K., Sanftner, J., et al.(1996).Assessing individual differences in constructive versus destructive responses to anger across the lifespan.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 780-796.
57. Van Dierendonck, D., & Smith, L.(2001).Een instrument voor het meten van psychologisch welzijn [An instrument for measuring psychological well-being].University of Amsterdam, Department of Organizational Psychology. Unpublished report.
58. Vohs, K. D., & Heatherton, T. F.(2001).Self-esteem and threats to self: Implications for self-construals and interpersonal perceptions.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1103-1118.
59. Vohs, K. D., & Heatherton, T. F.(2004).Ego threat elicits different social comparison processes among high and low self-esteem people: Implications for interpersonal perceptions.Social Cognition, 22, 168-191.
60. Vonk, R., Celik, P., Jolij, J., & Stoeller, T.(2011).Effects of positive feedback and self-reflection on self-esteem and contingency of self-worth. Submitted manuscript.
61. Waterman, A. S.(1993).Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 64, 678-691.
62. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A.(1988).Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.