Mixed Land Use and Obesity: An Empirical Comparison of Alternative Land Use Measures and Geographic Scales

Professional Geographer

Volumn 64, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 157-177

  Yamada, Ikuho ^a   Brown, Barbara B ^b   Smith, Ken R ^b   Zick, Cathleen D ^b   Kowaleski Jones, Lori ^b   Fan, Jessie X ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO   (Japan)

^b UNIVERSITY OF UTAH   (United States)

Author keywords

geographic scales of neighborhoods; land use diversity; obesity; walkability

Indexed keywords

BODY MASS; LAND USE PLANNING; NEIGHBORHOOD; NUMERICAL MODEL; OBESITY; WALKING;

SALT LAKE COUNTY; UNITED STATES; UTAH;

EID: 84859568536     PISSN: 00330124     EISSN: 14679272     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00330124.2011.583592     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Berke, E. M., Koepsell, T. D., Moudon, A. V., Hoskins, R. E. and Larson, E. B. 2007. Association of the built environment with physical activity and obesity in older persons. American Journal of Public Health, 97(3): 486-92.
2. Blanck, H. M., Dietz, W. H., Galuska, D. A., Gillespie, C., Hamre, R., Khan, L. K., Serdula, M. K., Ford, E. S., Garvin, W. S., Mokdad, A. H. and Densmore, D. 2006. State-specific prevalence of obesity among adults-United States, 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55(36): 985-88.
3. Booth, M. L., Bauman, A., Owen, N. and Gore, C. J. 1997. Physical activity preferences, preferred sources of assistance, and perceived barriers to increased activity among physically inactive Australians. Preventive Medicine, 26(1): 131-37.
4. Brown, B. B. and Werner, C. M. 2009. Before and after a new light rail stop: Resident attitudes, travel behavior, and obesity. Journal of the American Planning Association, 75(1): 5-12.
5. Brown, B. B., Yamada, I., Smith, K. R., Zick, C. D., Kowaleski-Jones, L. and Fan, J. X. 2009. Mixed land use and walkability: Variations in land use measures and relationships with BMI, overweight, and obesity. Health & Place, 15: 1130-41.
6. Brownson, R. C., Hoehner, C. M., Day, K., Forsyth, A. and Sallis, J. F. 2009. Measuring the built environment for physical activity: State of the science. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36(4, Suppl. 1): S99-S123. e12
7. Canepa, B. 2007. Bursting the bubble: Determining the transit-oriented development's walkable limits. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1992: 28-34.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007. Health risks in the United States: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System at a glance 2007, Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
9. Cervero, R. and Kockelman, K. 1997. Travel demand and the 3Ds: Density, diversity, and design. Transportation Research Part D-Transport and Environment, 2(3): 199-219.
10. Chen, C. and McKnight, C. E. 2007. Does the built environment make a difference? Additional evidence from the daily activity and travel behavior of homemakers living in New York City and suburbs. Journal of Transport Geography, 15(5): 380-95.
11. Cohen, D. A., Ashwood, S., Scott, M., Overton, A., Evenson, K. R., Voorhees, C. C., Bedimo-Rung, A. and McKenzie, T. L. 2006. Proximity to school and physical activity among middle school girls: The trial of activity for adolescent girls. Journal of Physical Activity and Health,: S129-S138. S1
12. Cohen, D. A., Sehgal, A., Williamson, S., Golinelli, D., Lurie, N. and McKenzie, T. L. 2007. Contribution of public parks to physical activity. American Journal of Public Health, 97(3): 509-14.
13. Craig, C. L., Brownson, R. C., Cragg, S. E. and Dunn, A. L. 2002. Exploring the effect of the environment on physical activity-A study examining walking to work. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23(2): 36-43.
14. Crane, R. 2007. Is there a quiet revolution in women's travel? Revisiting the gender gap in commuting. Journal of the American Planning Association, 73(3): 298-316.
15. Ewing, R. and Cervero, R. 2001. Travel and the built environment-A synthesis. Transportation Research Record, 1780: 87-114.
16. Ewing, R., Schmid, T., Killingsworth, R., Zlot, A. and Raudenbush, S. 2003. Relationship between urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(1): 47-57.
17. Ezzati, M., Martin, H., Skjold, S., Hoorn, S. V. and Murray, C. J. L. 2006. Trends in national and state-level obesity in the USA after correction for self-report bias: Analysis of health surveys. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 99(5): 250-57.
18. Fisher, K. J., Li, F. Z., Michael, Y. and Cleveland, M. 2004. Neighborhood-level influences on physical activity among older adults: A multilevel analysis. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 12(1): 45-63.
19. Flegal, K. M., Carroll, M. D., Ogden, C. L. and Curtin, L. R. 2010. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008. Journal of the American Medical Association, 303(3): 235-41.
20. Forsyth, A. E. 2005. Environment and physical activity: GIS protocols, Minneapolis: Metropolitan Design Center, University of Minnesota.
21. Forsyth, A., Hearst, M., Oakes, J. M. and Schmitz, K. H. 2008. Design and destinations: Factors influencing walking and total physical activity. Urban Studies, 45(9): 1973-96.
22. Forsyth, A., Schmitz, K. H., Oakes, M., Zimmerman, J. and Koepp, J. 2006. Standards for environmental measurement using GIS: Toward a protocol for protocols. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 3(Suppl. 1): S241-S257.
23. Frank, L. D., Andresen, M. A. and Schmid, T. L. 2004. Obesity relationships with community design, physical activity, and time spent in cars. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(2): 87-96.
24. Frank, L. D., Kerr, J., Sallis, J. F., Miles, R. and Chapman, J. 2008. A hierarchy of sociodemographic and environmental correlates of walking and obesity. Preventive Medicine, 47: 172-78.
25. Frank, L. D., Saelens, B. E., Powell, K. E. and Chapman, J. E. 2007. Stepping towards causation: Do built environments or neighborhood and travel preferences explain physical activity, driving, and obesity?. Social Science & Medicine, 65(9): 1898-1914.
26. Frank, L. D., Sallis, J. F., Conway, T. L., Chapman, J. E., Saelens, B. E. and Bachman, W. 2006. Many pathways from land use to health: Associations between neighborhood walkability and active transportation, body mass index, and air quality. Journal of the American Planning Association, 72(1): 75-87.
27. Frank, L., Schmid, T., Sallis, J., Chapman, J. and Saelens, B. 2005. Linking objectively measured physical activity with objectively measured urban form: findings from SMARTRAQ. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(Suppl. 2): 117-25.
28. Galster, G. C. 2001. On the nature of neighborhood. Urban Studies, 38(12): 2111-24.
29. Gauvin, L., Robitaille, E., Riva, M., McLaren, L., Dassa, C. and Potvin, L. 2007. Conceptualizing and operationalizing neighbourhoods-The conundrum of identifying territorial units. Canadian Journal of Public Health-Revue Canadienne De Sante Publique, 98: S18-S26.
30. Giles-Corti, B., Broomhall, M. H., Knuiman, M., Collins, C., Douglas, K., Ng, K., Lange, A. and Donovan, R. J. 2005. Increasing walking: How important is distance to, attractiveness, and size of public open space?. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(2, Suppl. 2): 169-76.
31. Giles-Corti, B. and Donovan, R. J. 2002. The relative influence of individual, social and physical environment determinants of physical activity. Social Science & Medicine, 54(12): 1793-1812.
32. Gorber, S. C., Tremblay, M., Moher, D. and Gorber, B. 2007. A comparison of direct vs. self-report measures for assessing height, weight and body mass index: A systematic review. Obesity Reviews, 8(4): 307-26.
33. Guo, J. Y. and Bhat, C. R. 2007. Operationalizing the concept of neighborhood: Application to residential location choice analysis. Journal of Transport Geography, 15(1): 31-45.
34. Handy, S. L. 1996a. Understanding the link between urban form and nonwork travel behavior. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 15(3): 183-98.
35. Handy, S. L. 1996b. Urban form and pedestrian choices: A study of four Austin neighborhoods. Transportation Research Record, 1552: 135-44.
36. Hanley, J. A., Negassa, A., Edwardes, M. D. and Forrester, J. E. 2003. Statistical analysis of correlated data using generalized estimating equations: An orientation. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157(4): 364-75.
37. Hanson, S. 2006. Active living research in light of the TRB/IMO report. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 3(Suppl. 1): S258-S266.
38. Hedley, A. A., Ogden, C. L., Johnson, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R. and Flegal, K. M. 2004. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among U.S. children, adolescents, and adults, 1999-2002. Journal of American Medical Association, 291(23): 2847-50.
39. Hill, J. O. and Peters, J. C. 1998. Environmental contributions to the obesity epidemic. Science, 280(5368): 1371-74.
40. Inagami, S., Cohen, D. A., Finch, B. K. and Asch, S. M. 2006. You are where you shop-Grocery store locations, weight, and neighborhoods. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 31(1): 10-17.
41. Janssen, I., Boyce, W. F., Simpson, K. and Pickett, W. 2006. Influence of individual- and area-level measures of socioeconomic status on obesity, unhealthy eating, and physical inactivity in Canadian adolescents. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83(1): 139-45.
42. Jetter, K. M. and Cassady, D. L. 2006. The availability and cost of healthier food alternatives. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 30(1): 38-44.
43. Kaufman, P. R. 1999. Rural poor have less access to supermarkets, large grocery stores. Rural Development Perspectives, 13(3): 19-26.
44. Kaufman, P. R., MacDonald, J. M., Lutz, S. M. and Smallwood, D. M. 1997. "Do the poor pay more for food? Item selection and price differences affect low-income household food costs". In Agricultural Economic Report No. 759, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
45. King, W. C., Belle, S. H., Brach, J. S., Simkin-Silverman, L. R., Soska, T. and Kriska, A. M. 2005. Objective measures of neighborhood environment and physical activity in older women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(5): 461-69.
46. Kockelman, K. 1997. Travel behavior as function of accessibility, land use mixing, and land use balance: Evidence from San Francisco Bay area. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1607(1): 116-25.
47. Krebs, C. J. 1989. Ecological methodology, New York: Harper & Row.
48. Krieger, N. 1991. Women and social class: A methodological study comparing individual, household, and census measures as predictors of black/white differences in reproductive history. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 45(1): 35-42.
49. Krieger, N. 1992. Overcoming the absence of socioeconomic data in medical records: Validation and application of a census-based methodology. American Journal of Public Health, 82(5): 703-10.
50. Krieger, N., Chen, J. T., Waterman, P. D., Rehkopf, D. H. and Subramanian, S. V. 2003. Race/ethnicity, gender, and monitoring socioeconomic gradients in health: A comparison of area-based socioeconomic measures-The public health disparities geocoding project. American Journal of Public Health, 93(10): 1655-71.
51. Krieger, N. and Gordon, D. 1999. Re: Use of census-based aggregate variables to proxy for socioeconomic group: Evidence from national samples. American Journal of Epidemiology, 150(8): 892-94.
52. Kwan, M.-P. 1998. Space-time and integral measures of individual accessibility: A comparative analysis using a point-based framework. Geographical Analysis, 30(3): 191-216.
53. Laraia, B., Messer, L., Evenson, K. and Kaufman, J. S. 2007. Neighborhood factors associated with physical activity and adequacy of weight gain during pregnancy. Journal of Urban Health-Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 84(6): 793-806.
54. Lee, C. and Moudon, A. V. 2004. Physical activity and environment research in the health field: Implications for urban and transportation planning practice and research. Journal of Planning Literature, 19(2): 147-81.
55. Li, F. Z., Harmer, P. A., Cardinal, B. J., Bosworth, M., Acock, A., Johnson-Shelton, D. and Moore, J. M. 2008. Built environment, adiposity, and physical activity in adults aged 50-75. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35(1): 38-46.
56. Liang, K. Y. and Zeger, S. L. 1986. Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models. Biometrika, 73: 13-22.
57. Lopez, R. P. 2007. Neighborhood risk factors for obesity. Obesity, 15(8): 2111-19.
58. McCormack, G. R., Giles-Corti, B. and Bulsara, M. 2008. The relationship between destination proximity, destination mix and physical activity behaviors. Preventive Medicine, 46(1): 33-40.
59. Messer, L. C. 2007. Invited commentary: Beyond the metrics for measuring neighborhood effects. American Journal of Epidemiology, 165(8): 868-71.
60. Miller, H. J. 1999. Measuring space-time accessibility benefits within transportation networks: Basic theory and computational procedures. Geographical Analysis, 31: 187-212.
61. Mobley, L. R., Root, E. D., Finkelstein, E. A., Khavjou, O., Farris, R. P. and Will, J. C. 2006. Environment, obesity, and cardiovascular disease risk in low-income women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 30(4): 327-32.
62. Mokdad, A., Serdula, M., Dietz, W., Bowman, B., Marks, J. and Koplan, J. 1999. The spread of the obesity epidemic in the United States, 1991-1998. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282: 1519-22.
63. Morency, C., Paez, A., Roorda, M. J., Mercado, R. and Farber, S. 2009. Distance traveled in three Canadian cities: Spatial analysis from the perspective of vulnerable population segments. Journal of Transport Geography, 19(1): 39-50.
64. Moudon, A. V., Lee, C., Cheadle, A. D., Garvin, C., Johnson, D. B., Schmid, T. L. and Weathers, R. D. 2007. Attributes of environments supporting walking. American Journal of Health Promotion, 21(5): 448-59.
65. Moudon, A. V., Lee, C., Cheadle, A. D., Garvin, C., Johnson, D. B., Schmid, T., Weathers, R. D. and Lin, L. 2006. Operational definitions of walkable neighborhood: Theoretical and empirical Insights. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 3(S1): S99-S117.
66. Nagendra, H. 2002. Opposite trends in response for the Shannon and Simpson indices of landscape diversity. Applied Geography, 22(2): 175-86.
67. Nawaz, H., Chan, W., Abdulrahman, M., Larson, D. and Katz, D. L. 2001. Self-reported weight and height: Implications for obesity research. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20(4): 294-98.
68. Norman, G. J., Nutter, S. K., Ryan, S., Sallis, J. F., Calfas, K. J. and Patrick, K. 2006. Community design and access to recreational facilities as correlates of adolescent physical activity and body-mass index. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 3(Suppl. 1): S118-S128.
69. O'Campo, P. 2003. Invited commentary: Advancing theory and methods for multilevel models of residential neighborhoods and health. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157(1): 9-13.
70. Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., McDowell, M. A., Tabak, C. J. and Flegal, K. M. 2006. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. Journal of the American Medical Association, 295(13): 1549-55.
71. Oliver, L. N., Schuurman, N. and Hall, A. W. 2007. Comparing circular and network buffers to examine the influence of land use on walking for leisure and errands. International Journal of Health Geographics, 6: 41
72. Openshaw, S. 1984. The modifiable areal unit problem, Norwich, UK: GeoBooks.
73. Pucher, J. and Renne, J. L. 2003. Socioeconomics of urban travel: Evidence from the 2001 NHTS. Transportation Quarterly, 57(3): 49-77.
74. Ravera, O. 2001. A comparison between diversity, similarity and biotic indices applied to the macroinvertebrate community of a small stream: The Ravella river (Como Province, Northern Italy). Aquatic Ecology, 35(2): 97-107.
75. Robert, S. A. and Reither, E. A. 2004. A multilevel analysis of race, community disadvantage, and body mass index among adults in the US. Social Science and Medicine, 59: 2421-34.
76. Rundle, A., Roux, A. V. D., Freeman, L. M., Miller, D., Neckerman, K. M. and Weiss, C. C. 2007. The urban built environment and obesity in New York City: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Health Promotion, 21(4): 326-34.
77. Saelens, B. E. and Handy, S. L. 2008. Built environment correlates of walking: A review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40: S550-S566.
78. Sallis, J. F., Nader, R. and Atkins, J. 1986. San Diego surveyed for heart healthy foods and exercise facilities. Public Health Reports, 101: 216-18.
79. Shannon, C. E. and Weaver, W. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication., Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
80. Simpson, E. H. 1949. Measurement of diversity. Nature, 163: 688
81. Smith, K. R., Brown, B. B., Yamada, I., Kowaleski-Jones, L., Zick, C. D. and Fan, J. X. 2008. Walkability and body mass index: Density, design, and new diversity measures. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35(3): 237-44.
82. Song, Y. and Rodriguez, D. A. 2005. The measurement of the level of mixed land uses: A synthetic approach. White Paper Series, Chapel Hill NC Carolina Transportation Program
83. Soobader, M., LeClere, F. B., Hadden, W. and Maury, B. 2001. Using aggregate geographic data to proxy individual socioeconomic status: Does size matter?. American Journal of Public Health, 91(4): 632-36.
84. Southworth, M. and Owens, P. M. 1993. The evolving metropolis: Studies of community, neighborhood, and street form at the urban edge. Journal of the American Planning Association, 59(3): 271-87.
85. Tilt, J. H., Unfried, T. M. and Roca, B. 2007. Using objective and subjective measures of neighborhood greenness and accessible destinations for understanding walking trips and BMI in Seattle, Washington. American Journal of Health Promotion, 21(4): 371-79.
86. U.S. Census Bureau. 2000. Census 2000, Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. http://factfinder.census.gov (last accessed 30 March 2010)
87. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2005. Dietary guidelines for americans, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
88. Weiss, L., Ompad, D., Galea, S. and Vlahov, D. 2007. Defining neighborhood boundaries for urban health research. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32(6S): S154-S159.
89. Wener, R. E. and Evans, G. W. 2007. A morning stroll: Levels of physical activity in car and mass transit commuting. Environment and Behavior, 39(1): 62-74.
90. Wood, J. A. 2005. Economic benchmarks for Salt Lake City's central business district, Salt Lake City, UT: The Downtown Alliance.
91. Yen, I. H. and Syme, S. L. 1999. The social environment and health: A discussion of the epidemiologic literature. Annual Review of Public Health, 20: 287-308.
92. Zeger, S. L. and Liang, K. Y. 1986. The analysis of discrete and continuous longitudinal data. Biometrics, 42: 121-30.
93. Zick, C. D., Smith, K. R., Fan, J. X., Brown, B. B., Yamada, I. and Kowaleski-Jones, L. 2009. Running to the store? The relationship between neighborhood environments and the risk of obesity. Social Science & Medicine, 69(10): 1493-1500.