Clinical aspects of brain injury in the preterm infant

The Newborn Brain Neuroscience and Clinical Applications, Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 301-328

  Weindling, Michael ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84859428837     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511711848.021     Document Type: Chapter

References (194)

1. Abernethy, L. J., Klafkowski, G., Foulder-Hughes, L., et al. (2003). Magnetic resonance imaging and T2 relaxometry of cerebral white matter and hippocampus in children born preterm. Pediatric Research, 54, 868–74.
2. Abernethy, L. J., Cooke, R. W., & Foulder-Hughes, L. (2004). Caudate and hippocampal volumes, intelligence, and motor impairment in 7-year-old children who were born preterm. Pediatric Research, 55, 884–93.
3. Als, H. & Gibes, R. (1986). Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program (NIDCAP): Training Guide. Boston, MA: Children's Hospital.
4. Als, H., Lawhon, G., Duffy, F. H., et al. (1994). Individualized developmental care for the very low-birth-weight preterm infant. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 272, 853–8.
5. Als, H., Duffy, F. H., McNulty, G. B., et al. (1995). Developmental care for the very low-birth-weight preterm infant. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 273, 1577–8.
6. Amiel-Tison, C. (1973). Neurologic disorders in neonates associated with abnormalities of pregnancy and birth. Current Problems in Pediatrics, 3, 3–37.
7. Anonymous. (1998). Randomised trial of parental support for families with very preterm children. Avon Premature Infant Project. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 79, F4–11.
8. Auso, E., Lavado-Autric, R., Cuevas, E., et al. (2004). A moderate and transient deficiency of maternal thyroid function at the beginning of fetal neocorticogenesis alters neuronal migration. Endocrinology, 145, 4037–47.
9. Back, S. A. & Volpe, J. J. (1997). Cellular and molecular pathogenesis of periventricular white matter injury. MRDD Research Reviews, 3, 96–107.
10. Back, S. A., Gan, X., Li, Y., et al. (1998). Maturationdependent vulnerability of oligodendrocytes to oxidative stress-induced death caused by glutathione depletion. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 6241–53.
11. Bandstra, E. S., Montalvo, B. M., Goldberg, R. N., et al. (1988). Prophylactic indomethacin for prevention of intraventricular hemorrhage in premature infants. Pediatrics, 82, 533–42.
12. Banker, B. & Larroche, J. (1962). Periventricular leukomalacia of infancy: a form of neonatal anoxic encephalopathy. Archives of Neurology, 7, 386–410.
13. Barks, J. D., Post, M., & Tuor, U. I. (1991). Dexamethasone prevents hypoxic–ischaemic brain damage in the neonatal rat. Pediatric Research, 29, 558–63.
14. Barrington, K. J. (2001). The adverse neuro-developmental effects of postnatal steroids in the preterm infant: a systematic review of RCTs. BMC Pediatrics, 1, 1.
15. Baud, O., Ville, Y., Zupan, V., et al. (1998). Are neonatal brain lesions due to intrauterine infection related to mode of delivery? British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 105, 121–4.
16. Benirschke, K. (1993). Intrauterine death of a twin: mechanisms, implications for surviving twin, and placental pathology. Seminars in Diagnostic Pathology, 10, 222–31.
17. Benson, J. W. T., Drayton, M. R., Hayward, C., et al. (1986). Multicentre trial of ethamsylate for prevention of periventricular haemorrhage in very low birth weight infants. Lancet, ii, 1297–300.
18. Bernal, J. (2007). Thyroid hormone receptors in brain development and function. Nature Clinical Practice Endocrinology and Metabolism, 3, 249–59.
19. Birch, E. E., Birch, D. G., Hoffman, D., et al. (1993). Breast feeding and optimal visual development. Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, 30, 33–8.
20. Biswas, S., Buffery, J., Enoch, H., et al. (2002). Longitudinal assessment of thyroid hormone concentrations in preterm infants younger than 30 weeks’ gestation during the first 2 weeks of life and their relationship to outcome. Pediatrics, 109, 222–7.
21. Bourgeois, J. P. (1997). Synaptogenesis, heterochrony and epigenesis in the mammalian neocortex. Acta Paediatrica Supplement, 422, 27–33.
22. Braner, D., Kattwinkel, J., & Denson, S., et al., eds. (2000). In Textbook of Neonatal Resuscitations, 4th edn. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, pp. 7–19.
23. Braughler, J. M. (1985). Lipid peroxidation-induced inhibition of gamma aminobutyric acid uptake in rat brain synaptosomes: protection by glucocorticoids. Journal of Neurochemistry, 44, 1282–8.
24. Brooks-Gunn, J., Gross, R. T., Kraemer, H. C., et al. (1992). Enhancing the cognitive outcomes of low birth weight, premature infants: for whom is the intervention most effective? Pediatrics, 89, 1209–15.
25. Brooks-Gunn, J., Klebanov, P. K., Liaw, F., et al. (1993). Enhancing the development of low-birthweight, premature infants: changes in cognition and behavior over the first three years. Child Development, 64, 736–53.
26. Brooks-Gunn, J., McCarton, C.M., Casey, P.H., et al. (1994). Early intervention in low-birth-weight premature infants. Results through age 5 years from the Infant Health and Development Program. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 272, 1257–62.
27. Cai, D., Su, Q., Chen, Y., et al. (2000). Effect of thyroid hormone deficiency on developmental expression of goalpha gene in the brain of neonatal rats by competitive RT-PCR and in situ hybridization histochemistry. Brain Research, 864, 195–204.
28. Calvert, S. A., Hoskins, E. M., Fong, F. W., et al. (1986). Periventricular leukomalacia: ultrasonic diagnosis and neurological outcome. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, 75, 489–96.
29. Calvo, R., Obregon, M. J., Ruiz de Ona, C., et al. (1990). Congenital hypothyroidism, as studied in rats. Crucial role of maternal thyroxine but not of 3, 5, 30- triiodothyronine in the protection of the fetal brain. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 86, 889–99.
30. Campbell, F. A. & Ramey, C. T. (1994). Effects of early intervention on intellectual and academic achievement: a follow-up study of children from low-income families. Child Development, 65, 684–98.
31. Chiswick, M. L., Johnson, M., Woodhall, C., et al. (1983). Protective effect of vitamin E (DL-alpha-tocopherol) against intraventricular haemorrhage in premature babies. British Medical Journal, 287, 81–4.
32. Chowdhry, P., Scanlon, J. W., Auerbach, R., et al. (1984). Results of controlled double-blind study of thyroid replacement in very low-birth-weight premature infants with hypothyroxinemia. Pediatrics, 73, 301–5.
33. Cifuentes, R. F., Olley, P. M., Balfe, J. W., et al. (1979). Indomethacin and renal function in premature infants with persistent patent ductus arteriosus. Journal of Pediatrics, 95, 583–7.
34. Collins, P. (1995). Embryology and development. In Gray's Anatomy, 38th edn., eds. P. L. Williams, L. H. Bannister, M. M. Berry, et al. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, pp. 252, 315, 316.
35. Cooke, R. W. I. (1987). Determinants of major handicap in post-haemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 62, 504–6.
36. Cooke, R. W. I. (2004). Health, lifestyle, and quality of life for young adults born very preterm. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 89, 201–6.
37. Cooke, R. W. (2006). Are there critical periods for brain growth in children born preterm? Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 91, F17–20.
38. Coombs, R. C., Morgan, M. E. I., Durbin, G. M., et al. (1990). Gut blood flow velocities in the newborn: effects of patent ductus arteriosus and parenteral indomethacin. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 65, 1067–71.
39. Costeloe, K., Hennessy, E. M., Gibson, A. T., et al. (2000). The EPICure Study: outcomes to discharge from hospital for babies born at the threshold of viability. Pediatrics, 106, 659–71.
40. Crowley, P., Chalmers, I., & Keirse, M. J. N. C. (1990). The effects of corticosteroid administration before preterm delivery: an overview of the evidence from controlled trials. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 97, 11–25.
41. Crowther, C. A., Doyle, L. W., Haslam, R. R., et al. (2007). Outcomes at 2 years of age after repeat doses of antenatal corticosteroids. New England Journal of Medicine, 357, 1179–89.
42. Dammann, O. & Leviton, A. (1997). Maternal intrauterine infection, cytokines, and brain damage in the preterm newborn. Pediatric Research, 42, 1–8.
43. De Vries, L. & Levene, M. I. (1995). Cerebral ischaemic lesions. In Fetal and Neonatal Neurology and Neurosurgery, eds. M. I. Levene, R. J. Lilford, M. J. Bennet, & J. Punt. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
44. Delivoria-Papadopoulos, M. & McGowan, J. E. (1998). Oxygen transport and delivery. In Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, eds. R. A. Polin & W.W. Fox. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
45. Den Ouden, A. L., Kok, J. H., Verkerk, P. H., et al. (1996). The relation between neonatal thyroxine levels and neurodevelopmental outcome at age 5 and 9 years in a national cohort of very preterm and/or very low birth weight infants. Pediatric Research, 39, 142–5.
46. Dobbing, J. & Sands, J. (1970). Timing of neuroblast multiplication in developing human brain. Nature, 226, 639–40.
47. Dommergues, M. A., Parkai, J., Renauld, J. C., et al. (2000). Proinflammatory cytokines and interleukin-9 exacerbate excitoxic lesions of the newborn murine neopallium. Annals of Neurology, 47, 54–63.
48. Dunlop, S. A., Archer, M. A., Quinlivan, J. A., et al. (1997). Repeated prenatal corticosteroids delay myelination in the ovine central nervous system. Journal of Maternal Fetal Medicine, 6, 309–13.
49. Eayrs, J. T. (1953). Thyroid hypofunction and the development of the central nervous system. Nature, 172, 403–4.
50. Eayrs, J. T. & Horn, G. (1955). The development of cerebral cortex in hypothyroid and starved rats. Anatomical Record, 121, 53–61.
51. Edwards, A. D., Wyatt, J. S., Richardson, C., et al. (1990). Effects of indomethacin on cerebral haemodynamics in very preterm infants. Lancet, 335, 1491–5.
52. Farquharson, J., Jamieson, E. C., Abbasi, K. A., et al. (1995). Effect of diet on the fatty acid composition of the major phospholipids of infant cerebral cortex. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 72, 198–203.
53. Fisher, D. A. & Klein, A. H. (1981). Thyroid development and disorders of thyroid function in the newborn. New England Journal of Medicine, 304, 702–12.
54. Fowlie, P. W. (1996). Prophylactic indomethacin: systematic review and meta-analysis. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 74, F81–7.
55. Fletcher, J. M., Landry, S. H., Bohan, T. O., et al. (1997). Effects of intraventricular hemorrhage and hydrocephalus on the long-term neurobehavioural development of verylow- birthweight infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 39, 596–606.
56. Garland, J. S. (1995). Developmental care for very low-birthweight preterm infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1575.
57. Georgeson, G. D., Szony, B. J., Streitman, K., et al. (2002). Antioxidant enzyme activities are decreased in preterm infants and in neonates born via caesarean section. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 103, 136–9.
58. Geva, E., Lerner-Geva, L., Stavorovsky, Z., et al. (1998). Multifetal pregnancy reduction a possible risk factor for periventricular leukomalacia in premature newborns. Fertility and Sterility, 69, 845–50.
59. Ginsberg, M. D., Hedley-Whyte, E. T., & Richardson, E. P. (1976). Hypoxic–ischemic leukoencephalopathy in man. Archives of Neurology, 33, 5–14.
60. Glazebrook, C., Marlow, N., Israel, C., et al. (2007). Randomised trial of a parenting intervention during neonatal intensive care. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 92, F438–43.
61. Goldenberg, R. L., Hauth, J. C., & Andrews, W. W. (2000). Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 1500–7.
62. Goodman, M., Rothberg, A. D., Houston-McMillan, J. E., et al. (1985). Effect of early neurodevelopmental therapy in normal and at-risk survivors of neonatal intensive care. Lancet, 2, 1327–30.
63. Grafe, M. R. (1993). Antenatal cerebral necrosis in monochorionic twins. Pediatric Pathology, 13, 15–19.
64. Greisen, G., Munck, H., & Lou, H. (1987). Severe hypocarbia in preterm infants and neurodevelopmental deficit. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, 76, 401–4.
65. Grether, J. K., Nelson, K. B., & Cummins, S. K. (1993). Twinning and cerebral palsy: experience in four northern California counties, births 1983 through 1985. Pediatrics, 92, 854–8.
66. Guralnick, M. J. (1998). Effectiveness of early intervention for vulnerable children: a developmental perspective. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 102, 319–45.
67. Hack, M., Flannery, D. J., Schluchter, M., et al. (2002). Outcomes in young adulthood for very-low-birth-weight infants. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 149–57.
68. Hall, E. D. (1992). The neuroprotective pharmacology of methylprednisolone. Journal of Neurosurgery, 76, 13–22.
69. Halliday, H. L. (2004). Use of steroids in the perinatal period. Paediatric Respiratory Reviews, 5 (Suppl. A), S321–7.
70. Hansen-Pupp, I., Harling, S., Berg, A. C., et al. (2005). Circulating interferon-gamma and white matter brain damage in preterm infants. Pediatric Research, 58, 946–52.
71. Huang, W. L., Beazley, L. D., Quinlivan, J. A., et al. (1999). Effect of corticosteroids on brain growth in fetal sheep. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 94, 213–18.
72. Hudgins, R. J., Boydston, W. R., Hudgins, P. A., et al. (1994). Treatment of intraventricular hemorrhage in the premature infant with urokinase. A preliminary study. Pediatric Neurosurgery, 20, 190–7.
73. Hur, J. J. (1995). Review of research on therapeutic interventions for children with cerebral palsy. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 91, 423–32.
74. Inder, T. E., Huppi, P. S., Warfield, S., et al. (1999). Periventricular white matter injury in the premature infant is followed by reduced cerebral cortical gray matter volume at term. Annals of Neurology, 46, 755–60.
75. Inder, T. E., Warfield, S. K., Wang, H., et al. (2005). Abnormal cerebral structure is present at term in premature infants. Pediatrics, 115, 286–94.
76. Iniguez, M. A., De Lecea, L., Guadano-Ferraz, A., et al. (1996). Cell-specific effects of thyroid hormone on RC3/neurogranin expression in rat brain. Endocrinology, 137, 1032–41.
77. Jobe, A. H., Mitchell, B. R., & Gunkel, J. H. (1993). Beneficial effects of the combined use of prenatal corticosteroids and postnatal surfactant on preterm infants. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 168, 508–13.
78. Kinney, H. C. & Back, S. A. (1998). Human oligodendroglial development: relationship to periventricular leukomalacia. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology, 5, 180–9.
79. Kissack, C. M., Garr, R., Wardle, S. P., et al. (2004). Cerebral fractional oxygen extraction in very low birth weight infants is high when there is low left ventricular output and hypocarbia but is unaffected by hypotension. Pediatric Research, 55, 400–5.
80. Kreider, M. L., Tate, C. A., Cousins, M. M., et al. (2006). Lasting effects of developmental dexamethasone treatment on neural cell number and size, synaptic activity, and cell signalling: critical periods of vulnerability, dose-effect relationships, regional targets, and sex selectivity. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 12–35.
81. Lacy, J. B. (1995). Developmental care for very low-birthweight preterm infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1576.
82. LaFranchi, S. (1999). Thyroid function in the preterm infant. Thyroid, 9, 71–8.
83. La Gamma, E. F., van Wassenaer, A. G., Golombek, S. G., et al. (2006). Neonatal thyroxine supplementation for transient hypothyroxinemia of prematurity: beneficial or detrimental? Treatments in Endocrinology, 5, 335–46.
84. Landy, H. J. & Keith, L. G. (1998). The vanishing twin: a review. Human Reproduction Update, 4, 177–83.
85. Lavado-Autric, R., Auso, E., Garcia-Velasco, J. V., et al. (2003). Early maternal hypothyroxinemia alters histogenesis and cerebral cortex cytoarchitecture of the progeny. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 111, 1073–82.
86. Leech, R. W. & Kohnen, P. (1974). Subependymal and intraventricular hemorrhage in the newborn. Annals of Pathology, 77, 465–75.
87. Levene, M. I. & de Vries, L. (1995). Neonatal intracranial haemorrhage. In Fetal and Neonatal Neurology and Neurosurgery, eds. M. I. Levene, R. J. Lilford, M. J. Bennet, et al. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
88. Leviton, A., Paneth, N., Reuss, M. L., et al. (1999). Hypothyroxinemia of prematurity and the risk of cerebral white matter damage. Journal of Pediatrics, 134, 706–11.
89. Lucas, A., Morley, R., & Cole, T. J. (1992). Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm. Lancet, 339, 261–4.
90. Lucas, A., Morley, R., & Fewtrell, M. S. (1996). Low triiodothyronine concentration in preterm infants and subsequent intelligence quotient (IQ) at 8 year follow up. British Medicine Journal, 312, 1132–3, discussion 3–4.
91. Mann, N. P., Haddow, R., Stokes, L., et al. (1986). Effect of night and day on preterm infants in a newborn nursery: randomised trial. British Medical Journal, 293, 1265–7.
92. Marlow, N., Wolke, D., Bracewell, M. A., et al. (2005). Neurologic and developmental disability at six years of age after extremely preterm birth. New England Journal of Medicine, 352, 9–19.
93. Martin, S. L., Ramey, C. T., & Ramey, S. (1990). The prevention of intellectual impairment in children of impoverished families: findings of a randomized trial of educational day care. American Journal of Public Health, 80, 844–7.
94. McCarton, C. M., Brooks-Gunn, J., Wallace, I. F., et al. (1997). Results at age 8 years of early intervention for lowbirth- weight premature infants. The Infant Health and Development Program. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 277, 126–32.
95. McCormick, M. C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Shapiro, S., et al. (1991). Health care use among young children in day care. Results in a randomized trial of early intervention. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 265, 2212–17.
96. McCormick, M. C., Workman-Daniels, K., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). The behavioral and emotional well-being of school-age children with different birth weights. Pediatrics, 97, 18–25.
97. Meijer, W. J., Verloove-Vanhorick, S. P., Brand, R., et al. (1992). Transient hypothyroxinaemia associated with developmental delay in very preterm infants. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 67, 944–7.
98. Ment, L. R., Stewart, W. B., Ardito, T. A., et al. (1992). Indomethacin promotes germinal matrix microvessel maturation in the newborn beagle pup. Stroke, 23, 1132–7.
99. Ment, L. R., Oh, W., Ehrenkranz, R. A., et al. (1994a). Lowdose indomethacin and prevention of intraventricular hemorrhage: a multicenter randomized trial. Pediatrics, 93, 543–50.
100. Ment, L. R., Oh, W., Ehrenkranz, R. A., et al. (1994b). Lowdose indomethacin therapy and extension of intraventricular hemorrhage: a multicenter randomized trial. Journal of Pediatrics, 124, 951–5.
101. Ment, L. R., Oh, W., Ehrenkranz, R. A., et al. (1995). Antenatal steroids, delivery mode, and intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 172, 795–800.
102. Ment, L. R., Oh, W., Philip, A. G. S., et al. (1999). Risk factors for early intraventricular hemorrhage in low birth weight infants. Journal of Pediatrics, 121, 776–83.
103. Merenstein, G. B. (1994). Individualized developmental care. An emerging new standard for neonatal intensive care units? Journal of the American Medical Association, 272, 890–1.
104. Merrell, C., Tymms, P., & Jones, P. (2007). Changes in children's cognitive development at the start of school in England 2000–2006. Available at: www.cemcentre.org/documents/pips/Baseline%20Assessment%202001%20to %202006%20%20v03.pdf (accessed 31 December 2007).
105. Modi, N., Lewis, H., Al-Naqeeb, N., et al. (2001). The effects of repeated antenatal glucocorticoid therapy on the developing brain. Pediatric Research, 50, 581–5.
106. Morgan, M. E. I., Benson, J.W.T., & Cooke, R.W. I. (1981). Ethamsylate reduces the incidence of periventricular haemorrhage invery lowbirthweightbabies.Lancet, 2, 830–1.
107. Morreale de Escobar, G., Obregon, M. J., & Escobar del Rey, F. (2000). Is neuropsychological development related to maternal hypothyroidism or to maternal hypothyroxinemia? Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 3975–87.
108. Morreale de Escobar, G., Obregon, M. J. & Escobar del Rey, F. (2004). Role of thyroid hormone during early brain development. European Journal of Endocrinology, 151 (Suppl. 3), U25–37.
109. Murphy, B. P., Inder, T. E., Huppi, P. S., et al. (2001). Impaired cerebral cortical gray matter growth after treatment with dexamethasone for neonatal chronic lung disease. Pediatrics, 107, 217–221.
110. Ng, S. M. (2008). Hypothyroxinaemia of prematurity: cause, diagnosis and management. Expert Review of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 3, 453–62.
111. Nicholson, J. L. & Altman, J. (1972). The effects of early hypo- and hyperthyroidism on the development of the rat cerebellar cortex. II. Synaptogenesis in the molecular layer. Brain Research, 44, 25–36.
112. Nosarti, C., Giouroukou, E., Micali, N., et al. (2007). Impaired executive functioning in young adults born very preterm. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 571–81.
113. Nuffield Council on Bioethics. (2006). Critical Care Decisions in Fetal and Neonatal Medicine: Ethical Issues. London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics.
114. Obregon, M. J., Calvo, R. M., Del Rey, F. E., et al. (2007). Ontogenesis of thyroid function and interactions with maternal function. Endocrine Development, 10, 86–98.
115. Ohlsson, A. (1995). Developmental care for very low-birthweight preterm infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1575.
116. Olsén, P., Pääkkö, E., Vainionpää, L., et al. (1997). Magnetic resonance imaging of periventricular leukomalacia and its clinical correlation in children. Annals of Neurology, 41, 754–61.
117. Osborn, D. & Hunt, R. (2007). Prophylactic postnatal thyroid hormones for prevention of morbidity and mortality in preterm infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1, CD005948.
118. Pape, K. & Wigglesworth, J. S. (1979). Haemorrhage, ischaemia and the perinatal brain. In Clinics in Developmental Medicine, 69/70. London, William Heinemann Medical Books.
119. Papile, L. A., Burstein, J., Burstein, R., et al. (1978). Incidence and evolution of subependymal and intraventricular haemorrhage: a study of infants with birth weights less than 1500 gm. Journal of Pediatrics, 92, 529–34.
120. Pappius, H. M. & Wolfe, L. S. (1983). Functional disturbances in brain following injury: search for underlying mechanisms. Neurochemical Research, 8, 63–72.
121. Patterson, P. H. & Nawa, H. (1993). Neuronal differentiation factors/cytokines and synaptic plasticity. Cell (Neuron), 71 (10 Suppl.), 123–37.
122. Paul, D. A., Leef, K. H., Stefano, J. L., et al. (1998). Low serum thyroxine on initial newborn screening is associated with intraventricular hemorrhage and death in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics, 101, 903–7.
123. Petterson, B., Nelson, K. B., Watson, L., et al. (1993). Twins, triplets, and cerebral palsy in births in Western Australia in the 1980s. British Medical Journal, 307, 1239–43.
124. Pharoah, P. O. & Cooke, T. (1996). Cerebral palsy and multiple births. Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 75, F174–7.
125. Pharoah, P. O. & Cooke, R. W. (1997). A hypothesis for the aetiology of spastic cerebral palsy –the vanishing twin. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 39, 292–6.
126. Pierrat, V., Duquennoy, C., van Haastert, I. C., et al. (2001). Ultrasound diagnosis and neurodevelopmental outcome of localised and extensive cystic periventricular leukomalacia. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 84, F151–6.
127. Piper, M. C., Kunos, V. I., Willis, D. M., et al. (1986). Early physical therapy effects on the high-risk infant: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics, 78, 216–24.
128. Pryds, O. (1994). Low neonatal cerebral oxygen delivery is associated with brain injury in preterm infants. Acta Paediatrica, 83, 1233–6.
129. Ramey, C. T. & Campbell, F. A. (1984). Preventive education for high-risk children: cognitive consequences of the Carolina Abecedarian Project. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 88, 515–23.
130. Ramey, C. T., Bryant, D. M., Wasik, B. H., et al. (1992). Infant health and development program for low birth weight, premature infants: program elements, family participation, and child intelligence. Pediatrics, 89, 454–65.
131. Rauh, V. A., Achenbach, T. M., Nurcombe, B., et al. (1988). Minimizing adverse effects of low birthweight: four-year results of an early intervention program. Child Development, 59, 544–53.
132. Rennie, J. M. (1997). Neonatal Cerebral Ultrasound. Cambridge University Press.
133. Reuss, M. L., Paneth, N., Pinto-Martin, J. A., et al. (1996). The relation of transient hypothyroxinemia in preterm infants to neurologic development at two years of age. New England Journal of Medicine, 334, 821–7.
134. Rijken, M., Gerlinde, M., Stoelhorst, S., et al. (2003). Mortality and neurologic, mental and psychomotor development at 2 years in infants born less than 27 weeks’ gestation: the Leiden follow-up project on prematurity. Pediatrics, 112, 351–8.
135. Ringelberg, J. & van de Bor, M. (1993). Outcome of transient periventricular echodensities in preterm infants. Neuropediatrics, 24, 269–73.
136. Roberts, D. & Dalziel, S. (2007). Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, CD004454.
137. Romero, R., Ghidini, A., Mazor, M., et al. (1991). Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in premature rupture of membranes. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology, 34, 769–78.
138. Ross, G., Boatright, S., Auld, P. A. M., et al. (1996). Specific cognitive abilities in 2-year-old children with subependymal and mild intraventricular haemorrhage. Brain and Cognition, 32, 1–13.
139. Rothberg, A. D., Goodman, M., Jacklin, L. A., et al. (1991). Six-year follow-up of early physiotherapy intervention in very low birthweight infants. Pediatrics, 88, 547–52.
140. Rovet, J. F. & Hepworth, S. (2001). Attention problems in adolescents with congenital hypothyroidism: a multicomponential analysis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 734–44.
141. Russell, G. A. B. & Cooke, R. W. I. (1995). Randomised controlled trial of allopurinol prophylaxis in very preterm infants. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 73, F27–31.
142. Saigal, S. & Streiner, D. (1995). Developmental care for very low-birth-weight preterm infants. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 273, 157–67.
143. Salerno, M., Militerni, R., Di Maio, S., et al. (1999). Intellectual outcome at 12 years of age in congenital hypothyroidism. European Journal of Endocrinology, 141, 105–10.
144. Sepkowitz, S. (1995). Developmental care for very lowbirthweight preterm infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1577.
145. Shankararn, S., Papile, L. A., Wright, L. L., et al. (1997). The effect of antenatal phenobarbital therapy on neonatal intracranial hemorrhage in preterm infants. New England Journal of Medicine, 337, 466–71.
146. Shimogaki, K., Koterazawa, K., Nabetani, M., et al. (1998). A study on the clinical features of cerebral palsy in twins. No To Hattatsu, 30, 24–8.
147. Shinwell, E. S., Lerner-Geva, L., & Lusky, A. (2007). Reichman B in collaboration with the Israel Neonatal Network Less postnatal steroids, more bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a population-based study in very low birthweight infants. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 92, F30–3.
148. Shonkoff, J. P. & Hauser-Cram, P. (1987). Early intervention for disabled infants and their families: a quantitative analysis. Pediatrics, 80, 650–8.
149. Simmer, K., Patole, S. K., & Rao, S. C. (2008). Longchain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants born at term. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Jan 23; (1):CD000376.
150. Sinha, S. K., Davies, J. M., Sims, D. G., et al. (1985). Relation between periventricular haemorrhage and ischaemic brain lesions diagnosed by ultrasound in very preterm infants. Lancet, 2, 1154–5.
151. Sizonenko, S. V., Borradori-Tolsa, C., Vauthay, D. M., et al. (2006). Impact of intrauterine growth restriction and glucocorticoids on brain development: Insights using advanced magnetic resonance imaging. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 254–255, 163–71.
152. Sizun, J. & Westrup, B. (2004). Early developmental care for preterm neonates: a call for more research. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 89, 384–8.
153. Song, S., Daneman, D., & Rovet, J. (2001). The influence of etiology and treatment factors on intellectual outcome in congenital hypothyroidism. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, 376–84.
154. Spinillo, A., Capuzzo, E., Stronati, M., et al. (1995). Effect of preterm premature rupture of membranes on neurodevelopmental outcome: follow up at two years of age. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 102, 882–7.
155. Spinillo, A., Viazzo, E., Colleoni, R., et al. (2004). Two-year infant neurodevelopmental outcome after single or multiple antenatal courses of corticosteroids to prevent complications of prematurity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 191, 217–24.
156. Symington, A. & Pinelli, J. (2006). Developmental care for promoting development and preventing morbidity in preterm infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD001814.
157. Teitel, D. F. (1998). Physiologic development of the cardiovascular system in the fetus. In Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, eds. R. A. Polin & W.W. Fox. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co.
158. Trounce, J. Q., Rutter, N., & Levene, M. I. (1986). Periventricular leukomalacia and intraventricular haemorrhage in the preterm neonate. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 61, 1196–202.
159. Tsiantos, A., Victorin, L., Relier, J. P., et al. (1974). Intracranial hemorrhage in the prematurely born infant. Timing of clots and evaluation of clinical signs and symptoms. Journal of Pediatrics, 85, 854–9.
160. Turnbull, J. D. (1993). Early intervention for children with or at risk of cerebral palsy. American Journal of Diseases in Children, 147, 54–9.
161. Tyszczuk, L., Meek, J., Elwell, C., et al. (1998). Cerebral blood flow is independent of mean arterial blood pressure in preterm infants undergoing intensive care. Pediatrics, 102, 337–41.
162. Uauy-Dagach, R. & Mena, P. (1995). The nutritional role of omega-3 fatty acids during the perinatal period. Clinics in Perinatology, 22, 157–75.
163. Van den Hout, B. M., Eken, P., Van der Linden, D., et al. (1998). Visual, cognitive, and developmental outcome at 5 1/2 years in children with perinatal haemorrhagic–ischaemic brain lesions. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 40, 820–8.
164. van Wassenaer, A. G., Kok, J. H., Dekker, F. W., et al. (1997a). Thyroid function in very preterm infants: influences of gestational age and disease. Pediatric Research, 42, 604–9.
165. van Wassenaer, A. G., Kok, J. H., de Vijlder, J. J., et al. (1997b). Effects of thyroxine supplementation on neurologic development in infants born at less than 30 weeks’ gestation. New England Journal of Medicine, 336, 21–6.
166. van Wassenaer, A. G., Westera, J., Houtzager, B. A., et al. (2005). Ten year follow up of children born at <30 weeks’ gestational age supplemented with thyroxine in the neonatal period in a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics, 116, e613–18.
167. Verma, U., Tejani, N., Klein, S., et al. (1997). Obstetric antecedents of intraventricular hemorrhage and periventricular leukomalacia in the low-birth-weight neonate. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 176, 275–81.
168. Vohr, B. R. & Allen, M. (2005). Extreme prematurity –the continuing dilemma. New England Journal of Medicine, 352, 71–2.
169. Vohr, B. R., Wright, L. L., Poole, K., et al. (2005). McDonald for the NICHD Neonatal Research Network Follow-up Study neurodevelopmental outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants <32 weeks’ gestation between 1993 and 1998. Pediatrics, 116, 635–43.
170. Vohr, B. R., Poindexter, B. B., Dusick, A. M., et al. (2006). NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Beneficial effects of breast milk in the neonatal intensive care unit on the developmental outcome of extremely low birth weight infants at 18 months of age. Pediatrics, 118, e115–23.
171. Volpe, J. J. (1998). Neurologic outcome of prematurity. Archives of Neurology, 55, 297–300.
172. Volpe, J. J. (2001). Neurobiology of periventricular leukomalacia in the premature infant. Pediatric Research, 50, 553–62.
173. Watts, J. L. & Saigal, S. (2006). Outcome of extreme prematurity: as information increases so do the dilemmas. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 91, F221–F5.
174. Weindling, A. M., Fok, T. F., Calvert, S., et al. (1985a). Newborn babies with periventricular cysts detected ultrasonographically are likely to develop cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 27, 806.
175. Weindling, A. M., Wilkinson, A. R., Cook, J., et al. (1985b). Perinatal events which precede periventricular haemorrhage and leukomalacia in the newborn. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 92, 1218–23.
176. Weindling, A. M., Hallam, P., Gregg, J., et al. (1996). A randomized controlled trial of early physiotherapy for high-risk infants. Acta Paediatrica, 85, 1107–11.
177. Weindling, A. M., Cunningham, C. C., Glenn, S. M., et al. (2007). Additional therapy for young children with spastic cerebral palsy: a randomised controlled trial. Health Technology Assessment, 11, 1–90.
178. Westrup, B., Kleberg, A., von Eichwald, K., et al. (2000). A randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the effects of the newborn individualized developmental care and assessment program in a Swedish setting. Pediatrics, 105, 66–72.
179. Whitelaw, A., Rivers, R., Creighton, L., et al. (1992). Low dose intraventricular fibrinolytic therapy to prevent posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 67, F12–14.
180. Whitelaw, A., Saliba, E., Fellman, V., et al. (1996). Phase 1 study of intraventricular recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for treatment of posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 74, F20–6.
181. Whitelaw, A. & Odd, D. E. (2007). Intraventricular streptokinase after intraventricular hemorrhage in newborn infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 17, CD000498.
182. Williams, A. J., O'shea, P. J., & Williams, G. R. (2007). Complex interactions between thyroid hormone and fibroblast growth factor signalling. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity, 14, 410–15.
183. Williams, F. L., Simpson, J., Delahunty, C., et al. (2004). Developmental trends in cord and postpartum serum thyroid hormones in preterm infants. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 89, 5314–20.
184. Williams, K., Hennessy, E., & Alberman, E. (1996). Cerebral palsy: effects of twinning, birthweight, and gestational age. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 75, F178–82.
185. Wolke, D., Schulz, J., & Meyer, R. (2001). Entwicklungslangzeitfolgen bei ehemaligen, sehr unreifen Frühgeborenen. Bayerische Entwicklungsstudie Monatsschr Kinderheilkd, 149 (Suppl. 1), 53–61.
186. Wood, N. S., Marlow, N., Costeloe, K., et al. (2000). Neurologic and developmental disability after extremely preterm birth. New England Journal of Medicine, 343, 378–84.
187. Wu, Y. W. & Colford, J. M. (2000). Chorioamnionitis as a risk factor for cerebral palsy. A meta-analysis. JAMA: The Journal of American Medical Association, 284, 1417–24.
188. Xiao, Q. & Nikodem, V. M. (1998). Apoptosis in the developing cerebellum of the thyroid hormone deficient rat. Frontiers in Bioscience, 3, A52–A7.
189. Yeh, T. F., Lin, Y. J., Lin, H. C., et al. (2004). Outcomes at school age after postnatal dexamethasone therapy for lung disease of prematurity. New England Journal of Medicine, 350, 1304–13.
190. Yoon, B. H., Romero, R., Yang, S. H., et al. (1996). Interleukin-6 concentrations in umbilical cord plasma are elevated in neonates with white matter lesions associated with periventricular leukomalacia. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 174, 1433–40.
191. Yoon, B. H., Chong, C. J., Romero, R., et al. (1997). Experimentally induced intrauterine infection causes fetal brain white matter lesions in rabbits. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 177, 797–802.
192. Yoshida, K. & Matayoshi, K. (1990). A study on prognosis of surviving cotwin. Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae (Roma), 39, 383–8.
193. Zeskind, P. S. & Ramey, C. T. (1978). Fetal malnutrition: an experimental study of its consequences on infant development in two caregiving environments. Child Development, 49, 1155–62.
194. Zeskind, P. S. & Ramey, C. T. (1981). Preventing intellectual and interactional sequelae of fetal malnutrition: a longitudinal, transactional, and synergistic approach to development. Child Development, 52, 213–18.