Self-Enhancement Following Exposure to Idealized Body Portrayals in Ethnically Diverse Men: A Fantasy Effect of Advertising

Sex Roles

Volumn 66, Issue 9-10, 2012, Pages 655-667

  Skorek, Małgorzata ^a   Dunham, Yarrow ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Advertising exposure; Asian; Fantasy effect; Hispanic; Implicit self esteem; Men; Self enhancement; White

Indexed keywords

EID: 84859216235     PISSN: 03600025     EISSN: 15732762     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11199-012-0124-8     Document Type: Article

References (76)

1. Adams, G., Turner, H., & Bucks, R. (2005). The experience of body dissatisfaction in men. Body Image, 2, 271-283. doi: 10. 1016/j. bodyim. 2005. 05. 004.
2. Agliata, D., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2004). The impact of media on males' body image. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 7-22. doi: 10. 1521/jscp. 23. 1. 7. 26988.
3. Banasiak, S. J., Wertheim, E. H., Koerner, J., & Voudouris, N. J. (2001). Test-retest reliability and internal consistency of a variety of measures of dietary restraint and body concerns in a sample of adolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 85-89. doi: 10. 1002/1098-108X(200101)29: 1< 85:: AID-EAT14> 3. 3. CO; 2-7.
4. Barlett, C. P., Harris, R. J., Smith, S., & Bonds-Raacke, J. (2005). Action figures and men. Sex Roles, 53, 877-885. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-005-8304-4.
5. Barlett, C. P., Vowels, C. L., & Saucier, D. A. (2008). Meta-analyses of the effects of media images on men's body-image concerns. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 279-310. doi: 10. 1521/jscp. 2008. 27. 3. 279.
6. Barr, S. I. (1995). Dieting attitudes and behavior in urban high school students: Implications for calcium intake. Journal of Adolescent Health, 16, 458-464. doi: 10. 1016/1054-139X(94)00092-S.
7. Bessenoff, G. R. (2006). Can the media affect us? Social comparison, self-discrepancy, and the thin ideals. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 239-251. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 2006. 00292. x.
8. Blond, A. (2008). Impacts of exposure to images of ideal bodies on male body dissatisfaction: A review. Body Image, 5, 244-250. doi: 10. 1016/j. bodyim. 2008. 02. 003.
9. Bosson, J. K., Swann, W. B., & Pennebaker, J. (2000). Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 631-643. doi: 10. 1037//0022-3514. 79. 4. 631.
10. Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Measuring male body image: A review of the current methodology. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 18-29. doi: 10. 1037/1524-9220. 5. 1. 18.
11. Cialdini, R. B., Borden, R. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L. R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 366-375. doi: 10. 1037//0022-3514. 34. 3. 366.
12. Clay, D., Vignoles, V. L., & Dittmar, H. (2005). Body image and self-esteem among adolescent girls: Testing the influence of sociocultural factors. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 15, 451-477. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1532-7795. 2005. 00107. x.
13. Cohn, L. D., & Adler, N. E. (1992). Female and male perceptions of ideal body shapes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16, 69-79. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 1992. tb00240. x.
14. Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluation. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 51-69. doi: 10. 1037//0033-2909. 119. 1. 51.
15. Coolican, C. R. (1999). The effect of television programming that emphasizes beauty/thinness on women's body image and self-esteem (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Edmonton: University of Alberta.
16. Crouch, A., & Degelman, D. (1998). Influence of female body images in printed advertising on self-ratings of physical attractiveness by adolescent girls. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87, 585-586. doi: 10. 2466/pms. 1998. 87. 2. 585.
17. Cvencek, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2012). Balanced identity theory: Review of evidence for implicit consistency in social cognition. In B. Gawronski & F. Strack (Eds.), Cognitive consistency: A fundamental principle in social cognition (pp. 157-177). New York: Guilford Press.
18. Davis, J., Busch, J., Hammatt, Z., Novotny, R., Harrigan, R., Grandinetti, A., et al. (2004). The relationship between ethnicity and obesity in Asian and pacific islander populations: A literature review. Ethnicity Disease, 14, 111-118. Retrieved from http://www. ishib. org/journal/ethn-14-01-111. pdf.
19. Dens, N., DePelsmacker, P., & Janssens, W. (2009). Effects of scarcely dressed models in advertising on body esteem for Belgian men and women. Sex Roles, 60, 366-378. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-008-9541-0.
20. Desrochers, D. M., & Holt, D. J. (2007). Children's Exposure to television advertising: Implications for childhood obesity. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 26, 182-201. doi: 10. 1509/jppm. 26. 2. 182.
21. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18. doi: 10. 1037//0022-3514. 56. 1. 5.
22. Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (2004). Thin-ideal internalization and social comparison tendency as moderators of media models' impact on women's body-focused anxiety. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 768-791. doi: 10. 1521/jscp. 23. 6. 768. 54799.
23. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Geartner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 62-68. doi: 10. 1037//0022-3514. 82. 1. 62.
24. Farquhar, J. C., & Wasylkiw, L. (2007). Media images of men: Trends and consequences of body conceptualization. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 145-160. doi: 10. 1037/1524-9220. 8. 3. 145.
25. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140. doi: 10. 1177/001872675400700202.
26. Flegal, K. M., Carroll, M. D., Kuczmarski, R. J., & Johnson, C. L. (1998). Overweight and obesity in the United States: Prevalence and trends, 1960-1994. International Journal of Obesity And Related Metabolism Disorders, 22, 39-47. doi: 10. 1038/sj. ijo. 0800541.
27. Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 460-476. doi: 10. 1037/0033-2909. 134. 3. 460.
28. Green, S., & Pritchard, M. E. (2003). Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women. Social Behavior and Personality, 31, 215-222. doi: 10. 2224/sbp. 2003. 31. 3. 215.
29. Greenwald, A. G. (1980). The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist, 35, 603-618. doi: 10. 1037//0003-066X. 35. 7. 603.
30. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27. doi: 10. 1037//0033-295X. 102. 1. 4.
31. Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002). Unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review, 109, 3-25. doi: 10. 1037//0033-295X. 109. 1. 3.
32. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480. doi: 10. 1037//0022-3514. 74. 6. 1464.
33. Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197-216. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 85. 2. 197.
34. Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Klauer, K. C. (2005). Validity of the salience asymmetry interpretation of the implicit association test: Comment on Rothermund and Wentura (2004). Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 134, 420-425. doi: 10. 1037/0096-3445. 134. 3. 420.
35. Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and using the implicit association test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 17-41. doi: 10. 1037/a0015575.
36. Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2002). The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 1-16. doi: 10. 1002/eat. 10005.
37. Grogan, S. (2008). Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children. New York: Routledge.
38. Grogan, S., Williams, Z., & Conner, M. (1996). The effects of viewing same-gender photographic models on body-esteem. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 569-575. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 1996. tb00322. x.
39. Halliwell, E., Dittmar, H., & Howe, J. (2005). The impact of advertisements featuring ultra-thin or average-size models on women with a history of eating disorders. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 15, 406-413. doi: 10. 1002/casp. 831.
40. Halliwell, E., Dittmar, H., & Orsborn, A. (2007). The effect of exposure to muscular male models among men: Exploring the moderating role of gym use and exercise motivation. Body Image, 4, 278-287. doi: 10. 1016/j. bodyim. 2007. 04. 006.
41. Hargreaves, D., & Tiggemann, M. (2009). Muscular ideal media images and men's body image: Social comparison processing and individual vulnerability. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10, 109-119. doi: 10. 1037/a0014691.
42. Hausenblas, H. A., Janelle, C. M., Gardner, R. E., & Hagan, A. L. (2003). Affective responses of high and low body satisfied men to viewing physique slides. Eating Disorders, 11, 101-113. doi: 10. 1080/10640260390199299.
43. Hobza, C. L., Walker, K. E., Yakushko, O., & Peugh, J. L. (2007). What about men? Social comparison and the effects of media images on body and self-esteem. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 161-172. doi: 10. 1037/1524-9220. 8. 3. 161.
44. Hoek, H. W. (2006). Incidence, prevalence and mortality of anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 19, 389-394. doi: 10. 1097/01. yco. 0000228759. 95237. 78.
45. Hudson, J. I., Hirpi, E., Pope, H. G., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 348-358. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2006. 03. 040.
46. Johnson, P. J., McCreary, D. R., & Mills, J. S. (2007). Effects of exposure to objectified male and female media images on men's psychological well-being. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 95-102. doi: 10. 1037/1524-9220. 8. 2. 95.
47. Kelley, C. C., Neufeld, J. M., & Musher-Eizenman, D. R. (2010). Drive for thinness and drive for muscularity: Opposite ends of the continuum or separate constructs? Body Image, 7, 74-77. doi: 10. 1016/j. bodyim. 2009. 09. 008.
48. Lane, K. A., Banaji, M. R., Nosek, B. A., & Greenwald, A. G. (2007). Understanding and using the implicit association test: IV. What we know (so far) about the method. In B. Wittenbrink & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Implicit measures of attitudes (pp. 59-102). New York: Guilford Press.
49. Lavine, H., Sweeney, D., & Wagner, S. H. (1999). Depicting women as sex objects in television advertising: Effects on body dissatisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1049-1058. doi: 10. 1177/01461672992511012.
50. Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2009). "Everybody knows that mass media are/are not [pick one] a cause of eating disorders": A critical review of evidence for a causal link between media, negative body image, and disordered eating in females. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 9-42. doi: 10. 1521/jscp. 2009. 28. 1. 9.
51. Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1997). Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 91-103. doi: 10. 1037//0022-3514. 73. 1. 91.
52. Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1999). Salient best selves can undermine inspiration by outstanding role models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 214-228. doi: 10. 1037//0022-3514. 76. 2. 214.
53. Lorenzen, L. A., Grieve, F. G., & Thomas, A. (2004). Exposure to muscular male models decreases men's body satisfaction. Sex Roles, 51, 743-748. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-004-0723-0.
54. McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2004). Body image dissatisfaction among males across lifespan: A review of past literature. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 56, 675-685. doi: 10. 1016/S0022-3999(03)00129-6.
55. van der Meij, L., Buunk, A. P., & Salvador, A. (2010). Contact with attractive women affects the release of cortisol in men. Hormones and Behavior, 58, 501-505. doi: 10. 1016/j. yhbeh. 2010. 04. 009.
56. Mills, J., Polivy, J., & Herman, C. (2002). Effects of thin body images on eating behavior, mood, and self-perception in restrained and unrestrained eaters. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1687-1699. doi: 10. 1177/014616702237650.
57. Monro, F. J., & Huon, G. F. (2006). Media-portrayed idealized images, self-objectification, and eating behavior. Eating Behaviors, 7, 375-383. doi: 10. 1016/j. eatbeh. 2005. 12. 003.
58. Myers, P. N., & Biocca, F. A. (1992). The elastic body image: The effect of television advertising and programming on body image distortions in young women. Journal of Communication, 42, 108-133. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1460-2466. 1992. tb00802. x.
59. Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). Understanding and using the implicit association test: II. Method variables and construct validity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 166-180. doi: 10. 1177/0146167204271418.
60. Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Choi, P., Olivardia, R., & Phillips, K. A. (1997). Muscle dysmorphia: An unrecognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics, 38, 548-557. Retrieved from http://www. psy. psychiatryonline. org/cgi/content/abstract/38/6/548.
61. Roberts, A., & Good, E. (2010). Media images and female body dissatisfaction: The moderating effects of the five-factor traits. Eating Behaviors, 11, 211-216. doi: 10. 1016/j. eatbeh. 2010. 04. 002.
62. Roney, J. R., Lukaszewski, A. W., & Simmons, Z. L. (2007). Rapid endocrine responses of young men to social interactions with young women. Hormones and Behavior, 52, 326-333. doi: 10. 1016/j. yhbeh. 2007. 05. 008.
63. Rosen, E. F., Brown, A., Braden, J., Dorsett, H. W., Franklin, D. N., Garlington, R. A., et al. (1993). African-American males prefer a larger female body silhouette than do whites. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31, 599-601.
64. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
65. Rudman, L. A., & Borgida, E. (1995). The afterglow of construct accessibility: The behavioral consequences of priming men to view women as sexual objects. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 493-517. doi: 10. 1006/jesp. 1995. 1022.
66. Skorek, M., & Dunham, Y. (2010, January). Mirror, mirror on the wall, who is the thinnest of them all? Sexually suggestive TV commercials and their impact on self-esteem and body perception in women of different races. Poster presented at the 11th Annual Conference of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Las Vegas, NV.
67. Spalding, L. R., & Hardin, C. D. (1999). Unconscious unease and self-handicapping: Behavioral consequences of individual differences in implicit and explicit self-esteem. Psychological Science, 10, 535-539. doi: 10. 1111/1467-9280. 00202.
68. Stunkard, A. J., Sorensen, T., & Schulsinger, F. (1983). Use of the Danish adoption register for the study of obesity and thinness. In S. S. Kety, L. P. Rowland, R. L. Sidman, & S. W. Matthysse (Eds.), The genetics of neurological and psychiatric disorders (pp. 115-120). New York: Raven.
69. Swann, W. B. (1985). Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. In A. G. Greenwald (Ed.), Social psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 2, pp. 33-66). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
70. Teachman, B. A., Cody, M. W., & Clerkin, E. L. (2010). Clinical applications of implicit social cognition theories. In B. Gawronski & B. K. Payne (Eds.), Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications (pp. 489-521). New York: Guilford Press.
71. Thompson, S. H., Sargent, R. G., & Kemper, K. A. (1996). Black and white adolescent males' perceptions of ideal body size. Sex Roles, 34, 391-406. doi: 10. 1007/BF01547808.
72. Tiggemann, M. (2003). Media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Television and magazines are not the same. European Eating Disorders Review, 11, 418-430. doi: 10. 1002/erv. 502.
73. Tiggemann, M., Polivy, J., & Hargreaves, D. (2009). The processing of thin ideals in fashion magazines: A source of social comparison or fantasy? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 73-93. doi: 10. 1521/jscp. 2009. 28. 1. 73.
74. Want, S. C. (2009). Meta-analytic moderators of experimental exposure to media portrayals of women on female appearance satisfaction: Social comparisons as automatic processes. Body Image, 6, 257-269. doi: 10. 1016/j. bodyim. 2009. 07. 008.
75. Wertheim, E. H., Paxton, S. J., & Tilgner, L. (2004). Test-retest reliability and construct validity of contour drawing rating scale scores in a sample of early adolescent girls. Body Image, 1, 199-205. doi: 10. 1016/S1740-1445(03)00024-X.
76. Wiers, R., Houben, K., Roefs, A., de Jong, P., Hofmann, W., & Stacy, A. (2010). Implicit cognition in health psychology: Why common sense goes out the window. In B. Gawronski & B. K. Payne (Eds.), Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications (pp. 463-488). New York: Guilford Press.