Anaesthesia and epilepsy

British Journal of Anaesthesia

Volumn 108, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 562-571

  Perks, A ^a   Cheema, S ^b   Mohanraj, R ^a  

^a HOPE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b BRADFORD ROYAL INFIRMARY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

anaesthesia; anticonvulsants; epilepsy; status epilepticus

Indexed keywords

ANESTHETIC AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CARBAMAZEPINE; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITOR; DIAZEPAM; ETIRACETAM; INHALATION ANESTHETIC AGENT; INTRAVENOUS ANESTHETIC AGENT; KETAMINE; LIDOCAINE; LORAZEPAM; METHOHEXITAL; MIDAZOLAM; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENT; NITROUS OXIDE; OPIATE; PENTOBARBITAL; PETHIDINE; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PROPOFOL; THIOPENTAL; VALPROIC ACID;

ANESTHESIA; CONVULSIVE STATUS EPILEPTICUS; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; EPILEPSY; EPILEPTIC STATE; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEIZURE;

EID: 84858406001     PISSN: 00070912     EISSN: 14716771     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/bja/aes027     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia 1989; 30: 389-99
2. Berg AT, Berkovic SF, Brodie MJ, et al. Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies: Report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005-2009. Epilepsia 2010; 51: 676-85
3. Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, et al. The SANAD study of effectiveness of carbamazepine, gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, or topiramate for treatment of partial epilepsy: An unblinded randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007; 369: 1000-15
4. Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, et al. The SANAD study of effectiveness of valproate, lamotrigine, or topiramate for generalised and unclassifiable epilepsy: An unblinded randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007; 369: 1016-26
5. Brodie MJ. Antiepileptic drug therapy the story so far. Seizure 2010; 19: 650-5
6. Rogawski MA, Bazil CW. New molecular targets for antiepileptic drugs: Alpha(2)delta, SV2A, and K(v)7/KCNQ/M potassium channels. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2008; 8: 345-52
7. Meldrum BS, Rogawski MA. Molecular targets for antiepileptic drug development. Neurotherapeutics 2007; 4: 18-61
8. Anderson J, Moor CC. Antiepileptic drugs: A guide for the nonneurologist. Clin Med 2010; 10: 54-8
9. Patsalos PN, Perucca E. Clinically important drug interactions in epilepsy: Interactions between antiepileptic drugs and other drugs. Lancet Neurol 2003; 2: 473-81
10. Johannessen Landmark C, Patsalos PN. Drug interactions involving the new second- and third-generation antiepileptic drugs. Expert Rev Neurother 2010; 10: 119-40
11. Patsalos PN, Perucca E. Clinically important drug interactions in epilepsy: General features and interaction between antiepileptic drugs. Lancet Neurol 2003; 2: 347-56
12. Haroutiunian S, Ratz Y, Rabinovich B, Adam M, Hoffman A. Valproic acid plasma concentration decreases in a dose-independent manner following administration of meropenem: A retrospective study. J Clin Pharmacol 2009; 49: 1363-9
13. Mancl EE, Gidal BE. The effect of carbapenem antibiotics on plasma concentrations of valproic acid. Ann Pharmacother 2009; 43: 2082-7
14. Kofke WA. Anesthetic management of the patient with epilepsy or prior seizures. Curr Opin Anesthesiol 2010; 23: 391-9
15. Vaughn LK, Pruhs RJ. Strain-dependent variability in nitrous oxide withdrawal seizure frequency. Life Sci 1995; 57: 1125-30
16. Artru AA, Lettich E, Colley PS, Ojemann GA. Nitrous oxide: Suppression of focal epileptiform activity during inhalation, and spreading of seizure activity following withdrawal. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1990; 2: 189-93
17. Hornbein TF, Eger EI II, Winter PM, Smith G, Weststone D, Smith KH. The minimum alveolar concentration of nitrous oxide in man. Anesth Analg 1982; 61: 553-6
18. Modica PA, Tempelhoff R, White PF. Pro- and anticonvulsant effects of anesthetics (Part I). Anesth Analg 1990; 70: 303-15
19. Constant I, Seeman R, Murat I. Sevoflurane and epileptiform EEG changes. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15: 266-74
20. Mohanram A, Kumar V, Iqbal Z, Markan S, Pagel PS. Repetitive generalized seizure activity during emergence from sevoflurane anesthesia. Can J Anaesth 2007; 54: 657-61
21. Sleigh JW, Vizuete JA, Voss L, et al. The electrocortical effects of enflurane: Experiment and theory. Anesth Analg 2009; 109: 1253-62
22. Kruczek M, Albin MS, Wolf S, Bertoni JM. Postoperative seizure activity following enflurane anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1980; 53: 175-6
23. Mirsattari SM, Sharpe MD, Young R. Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with inhalational anesthetic agents isoflurane and desflurane. Arch Neurol 2004; 61: 1254-9
24. Yillar DO, Akkan AG, Akcasu A, Ozuner Z, Eskazan E, Kucukhuseyin C. The effect of oral and subcutaneous meperidine on the maximal electroshock seizure (MES) in mice. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2009; 20: 159-68
25. Tortella F. Endogenous opioid peptides and epilepsy: Quieting the seizing braiň Trends Pharmacol Sci 1988; 9: 366-72
26. Saboory E, Derchansky M, Ismaili M, et al. Mechanisms of morphine enhancement of spontaneous seizure activity. Anesth Analg 2007; 105: 1729-35
27. Parkinson SK, Bailey SL, Little WL, Mueller JB. Myoclonic seizure activity in chronic high-dose spinal opioid administration. Anesthesiology 1990; 72: 743-5
28. Shih CJ, Doufas AG, Chang HC, Lin CM. Recurrent seizure activity after epidural morphine in a post-partum woman. Can J Anaesth 2005; 52: 727-9
29. Borgeat A, Biollaz J, Depierraz B, Neff R. Grand mal seizure after extradural morphine analgesia. Br J Anaesth 1988; 60: 733-5
30. Grønlykke L, Knudsen ML, Høgenhaven H, Moltke FB, Madsen FF, Kjaer TW. Remifentanil-induced spike activity as a diagnostic tool in epilepsy surgery. Acta Neurol Scand 2008; 117: 90-3
31. McGuire G, El-Beheiry H, Manninen P, Lozano A, Wennberg R. Activation of electrocorticographic activity with remifentanil and alfentanil during neurosurgical excision of epileptogenic focus. Br J Anaesth 2003; 91: 651-5
32. Akcaboy ZN, Akcaboy EY, Yigitbasl B, et al. Effects of remifentanil and alfentanil on seizure duration, stimulus amplitudes and recovery parameters during ECT. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2005; 49: 1068-71
33. Lowenstein D, Aminoff M, Simon R. Barbiturate anesthesia in the treatment of status epilepticus: Clinical experience with 14 patients. Neurology 1988; 38: 395-400
34. Brown A, Horton J. Status epilepticus treated by intravenous infusion of thiopentone sodium. Br Med J 1967; 1: 27-8
35. Power KN, Flaatten H, Gilhus NE, Engelsen BA. Propofol treatment in adult refractory status epilepticus. Mortality risk and outcome. Epilepsy Res 2011; 94: 53-60
36. Hymes JA. Seizure activity during isoflurane anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1985; 64: 367-8
37. Trzepacz PT, Weniger FC, Greenhouse J. Etomidate anesthesia increases seizure duration during ECT. A retrospective study. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1993; 15: 115-20
38. Reddy R, Moorthy S, Dierdorf S, Deitch R, Link L. Excitatory effects and electroencephalographic correlation of etomidate, thiopental, methohexital, and propofol. Anesth Analg 1993; 77: 1008-11
39. Smith M, Smith SJ, Scott CA, Harkness WF. Activation of the electrocorticogram by propofol during surgery for epilepsy. Br J Anaesth 1996; 76: 499-502
40. Myslobodsky MS, Golovchinsky V, Mintz M. Ketamine: Convulsant or anti-convulsant? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1981; 14: 27-33
41. Modica PA, Tempelhoff R, White PF. Pro- and anticonvulsant effects of anesthetics (Part II). Anesth Analg 1990; 70: 433-44
42. Usubiaga JE, Moya F, Wikinski JA, Wikinski R, Usubiaga LE. Relationship between the passage of local anaesthetics across the blood-brain barrier and their effects on the central nervous system. Br J Anaesth 1967; 39: 943-7
43. Steen PA, Michenfelder JD. Neurotoxicity of anesthetics. Anesthesiology 1979; 50: 437-53
44. Veering BT. Complications and local anaesthetic toxicity in regional anaesthesia. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2003; 16: 455-9
45. Pascual J, Ciudad J, Berciano J. Role of lidocaine (lignocaine) in managing status epilepticus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 49-51
46. Hamano S, Sugiyama N, Yamashita S, et al. Intravenous lidocaine for status epilepticus during childhood. Dev Med Child Neurol 2006; 48: 220-2
47. Yildiz B, Citak A, Uçsel R, Karaböcüoǧlu M, Aydinli N, Uzel N. Lidocaine treatment in pediatric convulsive status epilepticus. Pediatr Int 2008; 50: 35-9
48. Katz Y,Weizman A, Pick CG, et al. Interactions between laudanosine, GABA, and opioid subtype receptors: Implication for laudanosine seizure activity. Brain Res 1994; 646: 235-41
49. Lanier WL, Milde JH, Michenfelder JD. Cerebral stimulation following succinylcholine in dogs. Anesthesiology 1986; 64: 551-9
50. Schneck HJ, Rupreht J. Central anticholinergic syndrome (CAS) in anesthesia and intensive care. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1989; 40: 219-28
51. Lowenstein DH, Bleck T, Macdonald RL. It's time to revise the definition of status epilepticus. Epilepsia 1999; 40: 120-2
52. Kelso ARC, Cock HR. Status epilepticus. Practical Neurol 2005; 5: 322-33
53. Kapur J, Macdonald RL. Rapid seizure-induced reduction of benzodiazepine and Zn2+ sensitivity of hippocampal dentate granule cell GABAA receptors. J Neurosci 1997; 17: 7532-40
54. Naylor DE, Liu H, Wasterlain CG. Trafficking of GABA(A) receptors, loss of inhibition, and a mechanism for pharmacoresistance in status epilepticus. J Neurosci 2005; 25: 7724-33
55. Ashrafi MR, Khosroshahi N, Karimi P, et al. Efficacy and usability of buccal midazolam in controlling acute prolonged convulsive seizures in children. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2010; 14: 434-8
56. Nakken KO, Lossius MI. Buccal midazolam or rectal diazepam for treatment of residential adult patients with serial seizures or status epilepticus. Acta Neurol Scand 2011; 124: 99-103
57. Aylward RL. Epilepsy: A review of reports, guidelines, recommendations and models for the provision of care for patients with epilepsy. Clin Med 2008; 8: 433-8
58. Meierkord H, Poon B, Engelsen B, et al. EFNS guideline on the management of status epilepticus in adults. Eur J Neurol 2010; 17: 348-55
59. Schmidt D, Wilensky A. Benzodiazepines. In: Engel J, Pedly T, eds. Epilepsy: A Comprehensive Textbook, 2nd Edn. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008; 1531-41
60. Treiman DM, Meyers PD, Walton NY, et al. A comparison of four treatments for generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Veterans Affairs Status Cooperative Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 792-8
61. Cock HR, Schapira AH. A comparison of lorazepam and diazepam as initial therapy in convulsive status epilepticus. QJM 2002; 95: 225-31
62. Towne AR, DeLorenzo RJ. Use of intramuscular midazolam for status epilepticus. J Emerg Med 1999; 17: 323-8
63. Trinka E. What is the relative value of the standard anticonvulsants: Phenytoin and fosphenytoin, phenobarbital, valproate, and levetiracetam? Epilepsia 2009; 50(Suppl. 12): 40-3
64. Stern J, Perrucca E, Browne T. Phenytoin, fosphenytoin and other hydantoins. In: Engel J, Pedly T, eds. Epilepsy: A Comprehensive Textbook, 2nd Edn. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008; 1620-2
65. Crawford TO, Mitchell WG, Fishman LS, Snodgrass SR. Very-high-dose phenobarbital for refractory status epilepticus in children. Neurology 1988; 38: 1035-40
66. Lee WK, Liu KT, Young BW. Very-high-dose phenobarbital for childhood refractory status epilepticus. Pediatr Neurol 2006; 34: 63-5
67. Misra UK, Kalita J, Patel R. Sodium valproate vs phenytoin in status epilepticus: A pilot study. Neurology 2006; 67: 340-2
68. Gilad R, Izkovitz N, Dabby R, et al. Treatment of status epilepticus and acute repetitive seizures with i.v. valproic acid vs phenytoin. Acta Neurol Scand 2008; 118: 296-300
69. Segura-Bruna N, Rodriguez-Campello A, Puente V, Roquer J. Valproate-induced hyperammonemic encephalopathy. Acta Neurol Scand 2006; 114: 1-7
70. Möddel G, Bunten S, Dobis C, et al. Intravenous levetiracetam: A new treatment alternative for refractory status epilepticus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009; 80: 689-92
71. Berning S, Boesebeck F, van Baalen A, Kellinghaus C. Intravenous levetiracetam as treatment for status epilepticus. J Neurol 2009; 256: 1634-42
72. Gámez-Leyva G, Aristín JL, Fernández E, Pascual J. Experience with intravenous levetiracetam in status epilepticus: A retrospective case series. CNS Drugs 2009; 23: 983-7
73. Beyenburg S, Reuber M, Maraite N. Intravenous levetiracetam for epileptic seizure emergencies in older people. Gerontology 2009; 55: 27-31
74. Eue S, Grumbt M, Müller M, Schulze A. Two years of experience in the treatment of status epilepticus with intravenous levetiracetam. Epilepsy Behav 2009; 15: 467-9
75. Uges JW, van Huizen MD, Engelsman J, et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of intravenous levetiracetam infusion as add-on in status epilepticus. Epilepsia 2009; 50: 415-21
76. Alvarez V, Januel JM, Burnand B, Rossetti AO. Second-line status epilepticus treatment: Comparison of phenytoin, valproate, and levetiracetam. Epilepsia 2011; 52: 1292-6
77. Towne AR, Garnett LK, Waterhouse EJ, Morton LD, DeLorenzo RJ. The use of topiramate in refractory status epilepticus. Neurology 2003; 60: 332-4
78. Bensalem MK, Fakhoury TA. Topiramate and status epilepticus: Report of three cases. Epilepsy Behav 2003; 4: 757-60
79. Perry MS, Holt PJ, Sladky JT. Topiramate loading for refractory status epilepticus in children. Epilepsia 2006; 47: 1070-1
80. Albers JM, Möddel G, Dittrich R, et al. Intravenous lacosamide- an effective add-on treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Seizure 2011; 20: 428-30
81. Goodwin H, Hinson HE, Shermock KM, Karanjia N, Lewin JJ III. The use of lacosamide in refractory status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2011; 14: 348-53
82. Koubeissi MZ, Mayor CL, Estephan B, Rashid S, Azar NJ. Efficacy and safety of intravenous lacosamide in refractory nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Acta Neurol Scand 2011; 123: 142-6
83. Kellinghaus C, Berning S, Immisch I, et al. Intravenous lacosamide for treatment of status epilepticus. Acta Neurol Scand 2011; 123: 137-41
84. Helmstaedter C. Cognitive outcome of status epilepticus in adults. Epilepsia 2007; 48(Suppl. 8): 85-90
85. Cooper AD, Britton JW, Rabinstein AA. Functional and cognitive outcome in prolonged refractory status epilepticus. Arch Neurol 2009; 66: 1505-9
86. Vasile B, Rasulo F, Candiani A, Latronico N. Propofol infusion syndrome. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29: 1417-25
87. Holtkamp M. The anaesthetic and intensive care of status epilepticus. Curr Opin Neurol 2007; 20: 188-93
88. MacKenzie S, Kapadia F, Grant I. Propofol infusion for control of status epilepticus. Anaesthesia 1990; 45: 1043-5
89. Pitt-Miller P, Elcock B, Maharaj M. The management of status epilepticus with a continuous propofol infusion. Anesth Analg 1994; 78: 1193-4
90. Parviainen I, Kalviainen R, Ruokonen E. Propofol and barbiturates for the anesthesia of refractory convulsive status epilepticus: Pros and cons. Neurol Res 2007; 29: 667-71
91. Rossetti AO, Logroscino G, Liaudet L, et al. Status epilepticus: An independent outcome predictor after cerebral anoxia. Neurology 2007; 69: 255-60
92. Zarovnaya EL, Jobst BC, Harris BT. Propofol-associated fatal myocardial failure and rhabdomyolysis in an adult with status epilepticus. Epilepsia 2007; 48: 1002-6
93. Iyer V, Hoel R, Rabinstein AA. Propofol infusion syndrome in patients with refractory status epilepticus: An 11-year clinical experience. Crit Care Med 2009; 37: 3024-30
94. Hsieh CY, Sung PS, Tsai JJ, Huang CW. Terminating prolonged refractory status epilepticus using ketamine. Clin Neuropharmacol 2010; 33: 165-7
95. Fujikawa DG. Neuroprotective effect of ketamine administered after status epilepticus onset. Epilepsia 1995; 36: 186-95
96. Ubogu EE, Sagar SM, Lerner AJ, Maddux BN, Suarez JI, Werz MA. Ketamine for refractory status epilepticus: A case of possible ketamine-induced neurotoxicity. Epilepsy Behav 2003; 4: 70-5
97. Towne AR, Waterhouse EJ, Boggs JG, et al. Prevalence of nonconvulsive status epilepticus in comatose patients. Neurology 2000; 54: 340-5
98. Waterhouse EJ, Vaughan JK, Barnes TY, et al. Synergistic effect of status epilepticus and ischemic brain injury on mortality. Epilepsy Res 1998; 29: 175-83
99. Vespa PM, Nuwer MR, Nenov V, et al. Increased incidence and impact of nonconvulsive and convulsive seizures after traumatic brain injury as detected by continuous electroencephalographic monitoring. J Neurosurg 1999; 91: 750-60
100. Rossetti AO, Milligan TA, Vulliemoz S, Michaelides C, Bertschi M, Lee JW. A randomized trial for the treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2011; 14: 4-10
101. Jirsch J, Hirsch LJ. Nonconvulsive seizures: Developing a rational approach to the diagnosis and management in the critically ill population. Clin Neurophysiol 2007; 118: 1660-70
102. Shorvon S. What is nonconvulsive status epilepticus, and what are its subtypes? Epilepsia 2007; 48(Suppl. 8): 35-8
103. Beyenburg S, Elger CE, Reuber M. Acute confusion or altered mental state: Consider nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Gerontology 2007; 53: 388-96
104. Howell SJ, Owen L, Chadwick DW. Pseudostatus epilepticus. QJM 1989; 71: 507-19
105. Reuber M, Enright SM, Goulding PJ. Postoperative pseudostatus: Not everything that shakes is epilepsy. Anaesthesia 2000; 55: 74-8
106. Shorvon SD. Emergency treatment of acute seizures, serial seizures, seizure cluster and status epilepticus. In: Shorvon SD, ed. Handbook of Epilepsy Treatment. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2000
107. Olsen KB, Tauboll E, Gjerstad L. Valproate is an effective, welltolerated drug for treatment of status epilepticus/serial attacks in adults. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 2007; 187: 51-4
108. Prüss H, Holtkamp M. Ketamine successfully terminates malignant status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res 2008; 82: 219-22
109. Sheth RD, Gidal BE. Refractory status epilepticus: Response to ketamine. Neurology 1998; 51: 1765-66