Anesthetic management of the patient with epilepsy or prior seizures

Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 391-399

  Kofke, W Andrew ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Anesthetic techniques; Anticonvulsants; Brain; Convulsions; Epilepsy; Inhalation; Intravenous; Review

Indexed keywords

CARBAMAZEPINE; CLONAZEPAM; DESFLURANE; ENFLURANE; ETHOSUXIMIDE; ETIRACETAM; ETOMIDATE; FELBAMATE; GABAPENTIN; HALOTHANE; ISOFLURANE; KETAMINE; LAMOTRIGINE; METHOHEXITAL; NITROUS OXIDE; OXCARBAZEPINE; PENTOBARBITAL; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PRIMIDONE; PROPOFOL; REMIFENTANIL; SEVOFLURANE; THIOPENTAL; TIAGABINE; TOPIRAMATE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALPROIC ACID; VIGABATRIN; ZONISAMIDE;

ANESTHESIA; ANHIDROSIS; APLASTIC ANEMIA; ARTHRITIS; ASTHENIA; ATAXIA; AUTONOMIC DYSFUNCTION; BEHAVIOR CHANGE; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BLURRED VISION; BRAIN DISEASE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE; COARSE FACE; COMA; CONFUSION; DEPRESSION; DIARRHEA; DIPLOPIA; DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR CLOTTING; DIZZINESS; DROWSINESS; DRUG ANTAGONISM; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DOSE TITRATION; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG FEVER; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG METABOLISM; EPILEPSY; EPILEPTIC DISCHARGE; EPILEPTIC STATE; ERYTHROCYTE APLASIA; FOCAL EPILEPSY; FOLIC ACID BLOOD LEVEL; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GINGIVA HYPERPLASIA; GRAND MAL SEIZURE; HAIR LOSS; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART MUSCLE CONDUCTION DISTURBANCE; HEART VENTRICLE FIBRILLATION; HEMATOLOGIC DISEASE; HIRSUTISM; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPONATREMIA; HYPOTENSION; IMMUNOPATHOLOGY; INFECTION; INSOMNIA; IRRITABILITY; KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION; KIDNEY FAILURE; LANGUAGE DISABILITY; LIVER FAILURE; LIVER TOXICITY; METABOLIC ACIDOSIS; METABOLIC DISORDER; MYOCLONUS SEIZURE; NAUSEA; NEPHROLITHIASIS; NONHUMAN; NYSTAGMUS; OPEN ANGLE GLAUCOMA; PERIPHERAL EDEMA; PHOTOSENSITIVITY; PLASMA HALF LIFE; PLASMA PROTEIN BINDING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSIS; RESPIRATION DEPRESSION; REVIEW; SEDATION; SIDE EFFECT; SLURRED SPEECH; SOFT TISSUE INJURY; SOMNOLENCE; STEVENS JOHNSON SYNDROME; STOMACH DISEASE; STUPOR; TEMPORAL LOBE EPILEPSY; THROMBOCYTE DYSFUNCTION; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; TIC; TONIC CLONIC SEIZURE; TOXIC EPIDERMAL NECROLYSIS; TREMOR; VERTIGO; VISUAL FIELD DEFECT; VOMITING; WEIGHT CHANGE; WEIGHT GAIN; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

ANESTHESIA; ANESTHETICS; ANTICONVULSANTS; DRUG INTERACTIONS; EPILEPSY; HUMANS; SEIZURES;

EID: 77951987402     PISSN: 09527907     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/ACO.0b013e328339250b     Document Type: Review

References (187)

1. Bjornaes H. Consequences of severe epilepsy: psychosocial aspects. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 1988; 117: 28-33.
2. Cahan L, Engel J Jr. Surgery for epilepsy: a review. Acta Neurol Scand 1986; 73: 551-560.
3. Keranen T, Riekkinen P. Severe epilepsy: diagnostic and epidemiological aspects. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 1988; 117: 7-14.
4. Anonymous. Proposal for revised classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia 1989; 30: 389-399.
5. Engel JJ, editor. Seizures and epilepsy. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: FA David Company; 1989.
6. French JA, Pedley TA. Clinical practice. Initial management of epilepsy. • N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 166-176. An updated review of the algorithm for neurologists in initial management of epilepsy.
7. Kofke W, Garman R, Tom W, et al. Alfentanil-induced hypermetabolism, seizure, and neuropathology in rats. Anesth Analg 1992; 75: 953-964.
8. Kofke W, Garman R, Garman R, Rose M. Opioid neurotoxicity: fentanylinduced exacerbation of forebrain ischemia in rats. Anesthesiology 1994; 81: A820.
9. Kofke W, Garman R, Janosky J, Rose M. Opioid neurotoxicity: neuropathologic effects of different fentanyl congeners and effects of hexamethoniuminduced normotension. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 141-146.
10. Kofke W, Garman R, Stiller R, et al. Opioid neurotoxicity: fentanyl dose response effects in rats. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 1298-1306.
11. Kofke W, Garman R, Rose M, Garman R. Opioid neurotoxicity:fentanyl- induced exacerbation of cerebral ischemia in rats. Brain Res 1999; 818: 326-334.
12. Dasheiff R, Kofke W. Evaluation of the thiopental test in epilepsy surgery patients. Epilepsy Res 1993; 15: 253-258.
13. Kofke WA, Dasheiff RM, Dong ML, et al. Anesthetic care during thiopental tests to evaluate epileptic patients for surgical therapy. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1993; 5: 164-170.
14. Kofke W, Attaallah A, Kuwabara H, et al. Neuropathologic effects in rats and neurometabolic effects in humans of high-dose remifentanil. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 1229-1236.
15. Modica P, Tempelhoff R, White P. Pro-and anticonvulsant effects of anesthetics [part I]. Anesth Analg 1990; 70: 303-315. (Pubitemid 20185117)
16. Kofke W, Towfighi J, O'Connell B, et al. Neuropathologic effects of anesthetics used to stop status epilepticus in rats. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: A390.
17. Ropper A, Kofke W, Bromfield E, et al. Comparison of isoflurane, halothane, and nitrous oxide in status epilepticus [letter]. Ann Neurol 1986; 19: 98-99.
18. Belknap J, Laursen S, Crabbe J. Ethanol and nitrous oxide produce withdrawal-induced convulsions by similar mechanisms in mice. Life Sci 1987; 41: 2033-2040.
19. Sinz E, Kofke W, Garman R. Phenytoin, midazolam, and naloxone protect against fentanyl-induced brain damageinrats. Anesth Analg 2000; 91: 1443-1449.
20. Mirsattari SM, Sharpe MD, Young GB, et al. Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with inhalational anesthetic agents isoflurane and desflurane. Arch Neurol 2004; 61: 1254-1259.
21. Kofke W, Snider M, Young R, et al. Prolonged low flow isoflurane anesthesia for status epilepticus. Anesthesiology 1985; 62: 653-656.
22. Kofke W, Young R, Davis P, et al. Isoflurane for refractory status epilepticus: a clinical series. Anesthesiology 1989; 71: 653-659.
23. Harrison J. Postoperative seizures after isoflurane anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1986; 65: 1235-1236.
24. Hymes J. Seizure activity during isoflurane anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1985; 64: 367-368.
25. Keats A. Seizures from isoflurane? [Letter]. Anesth Analg 1985; 64: 1225-1226.
26. Poulton T, Ellingson R. Seizure associated with induction of anesthesia with isoflurane. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: 471-476.
27. Fiol M, Boening J, Cruz-Rodriguez R, et al. Effect of isoflurane (Forane) on intraoperative electrocorticogram. Epilepsia 1993; 34: 897-899.
28. Komatsu H, Taie S, Endo S, et al. Electrical seizures during sevoflurane anesthesia in two pediatric patients with epilepsy. Anesthesiology 1994; 81: 1535-1537.
29. Adachi M, Ikemoto Y, Kubo K, et al. Seizure-like movements during induction of anaesthesia with sevoflurane. Br J Anaesth 1992; 6: 214-215.
30. Fukuda H, Hirabayashi Y, Shimizu R, et al. Sevoflurane is equivalent to isoflurane for attenuating bupivacaine-induced arrhythmias and seizures in rats. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 570-573.
31. Rampil I, Lockhart S, Eger E, et al. The electroencephalographic effects of desflurane in humans. Anesthesiology 1991; 74: 434-439.
32. Sharpe MD, Young GB, Mirsattari S, et al. Prolonged desflurane administration for refractory status epilepticus. Anesthesiology 2002; 97: 261-264.
33. Goldberg M, McIntyre H. Barbiturates in the treatment of status epilepticus. Adv Neurol 1983; 34: 499-503.
34. Lowenstein D, Aminoff M, Simon R. Barbiturate anesthesia in the treatment of status epilepticus: clinical experience with 14 patients. Neurology 1988; 38: 395-400.
35. Brown A, Horton J. Status epilepticus treated by intravenous infusion of thiopentone sodium. BMJ 1967; 1: 27-28.
36. Van Ness P. Pentobarbital and EEG burst suppression in treatment of status epilepticus refractory to benzodiazepines and phenytoin. Epilepsia 1990; 31: 61.
37. Lieb J, Sperling M, Mendius J, et al. Visual versus computer evaluation of thiopental-induced EEG changes in temporal lobe epilepsy. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1986; 63: 395-407.
38. Lieb J, Babb T, Engel J Jr. Quantitative comparison of cell loss and thiopentalinduced EEG changes in human epileptic hippocampus. Epilepsia 1989; 30: 147-156.
39. De Riu P, Mameli O, Tolu E. Comparison of the effect of althesin with diazepam and thiopental sodium on cortical and subcortical epileptic activity in the rat. Pharmacol Res Commun 1987; 19: 59-68.
40. Reddy R, Moorthy S, Dierdorf S, et al. Excitatory effects and electroencephalographic correlation of etomidate, thiopental, methohexital, and propofol. Anesth Analg 1993; 77: 1008-1011.
41. Hasan Z, Hasan M, Al-Hader A, Takrouri M. A comparison of the anticonvulsant effects of propofol and thiopentone against pentylenetetrazol- induced convulsions in the rat. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1991; 18: 691-695.
42. Opitz A, Marschall M, Degan R, et al. General anesthesia in patients with epilepsy and status epilepticus. Adv Neurol 1983; 34: 531-535.
43. Wyler A, Richey E, Atkinson R, et al. Methohexital activation of epileptogenic foci during acute electrocorticography. Epilepsia 1987; 28: 490-494.
44. Fiol M, Torres F, Gates J, et al. Methohexital (Brevital) effect on electrocorticogram may be misleading. Epilepsia 1990; 31: 524-528.
45. Pampiglione G, Da Costa A. Intravenous therapy and EEG monitoring in prolonged seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1975; 38: 371-377.
46. Aasly J, Blom S, Silfvenius H, et al. Effects of amobarbital and methohexital on epileptic activity in mesial temporal structures in epileptic patients. An EEG study with depth electrodes. Acta Neurol Scand 1984; 70: 423-431.
47. Barra D, Dru M, Truffa-Bachi J. Generalized seizure induced by methohexital. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1987; 6: 120-121.
48. Male C, Allen E. Methohexitone-induced convulsions in epileptics. Anaesth Intensive Care 1977; 5: 226-230.
49. Yeoman P, Hutchinson A, Byrne A, et al. Etomidate infusions for the control of refractory status epilepticus. Intensive Care Med 1989; 15: 255-259.
50. Krieger W, Copperman J, Laxer K. Seizures with etomidate anesthesia [letter]. Anesth Analg 1985; 64: 1226-1227.
51. Laughlin T, Newberg L. Prolonged myoclonus after etomidate anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1985; 64: 80-82.
52. Goroszeniuk T, Albin M, Jones R. Generalized grand mal seizure after recovery from uncomplicated fentanyl-etomidate anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1986; 65: 979-981.
53. Hansen H, Drenck N. Generalized seizures after etomidate anaesthesia [letter]. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 805-806.
54. Krieger W, Koerner M. Generalized grand mal seizure after recovery from uncomplicated fentanyl-etomidate anesthesia [letter]. Anesth Analg 1987; 66: 284-285.
55. Baiker-Heberlein M, Kenins P, Kikillus H, et al. Investigations on the site of the central nervous action of the short-acting hypnotic agent r-(+)-ethyl-1-(alphamethyl-benzyl) imidazole-5-carboxylate (etomidate) in cats. Anaesthesist 1979; 28: 78-84.
56. Meinck H, Mohlenhof O, Kettler D. Neurophysiological effects of etomidate, a new short-acting hypnotic. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1980; 50: 515-522.
57. Ebrahim Z, DeBoer G, Luders H, et al. Effect of etomidate on the electroencephalogram of patients with epilepsy. Anesth Analg 1986; 5: 1004-1006.
58. Gancher S, Laxer K, Krieger W. Activation of epileptogenic activity by etomidate. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: 616-618.
59. Nickel B, Schmickaly R. Increased tendency to seizures as affected by longterm infusions of etomidate in delirium tremens. Anaesthesist 1985; 34: 462-469.
60. Kofke WA, Bloom MJ, Van Cott A, Brenner RP. Electrographic tachyphylaxis to etomidate and ketamine used for refractory status epilepticus controlled with isoflurane. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1997; 9: 269-272.
61. Tassinari C, Daniels O, Michelucci R, et al. Benzodiazepines: efficacy in status epilepticus. Adv Neurol 1983; 34: 465-475.
62. Nicol CF, Tutton JC, Smith BH. Parenteral diazepam in status epilepticus. Neurology 1969; 19: 332-343.
63. Orr R, Dimand R, Venkataraman S, et al. Diazepam and intubation in emergency treatment of seizures in children. Ann Emerg Med 1991; 20: 1009-1013.
64. Seigler R. The administration of rectal diazepam for acute management of seizures. J Emerg Med 1990; 8: 155-159.
65. Bell H, Bertino JJ. Constant diazepam infusion in the treatment of continuous seizure activity. Drug Intelligence Clin Pharm 1984; 18: 965-970.
66. Crisp C, Gannon R, Knauft F. Continuous infusion of midazolam hydrochloride to control status epilepticus. Clin Pharm 1988; 7: 322-324.
67. Giang D, McBride M. Lorazepam versus diazepam for the treatment of status epilepticus. Pediatr Neurol 1988; 4: 358-361.
68. Treiman D. The role of benzodiazepines in the management of status epilepticus. Neurology 1990; 40: 32-42.
69. Chiulli D, Terndrup T, Kanter R. The influence of diazepam or lorazepam on the frequency of endotracheal intubation in childhood status epilepticus. J Emerg Med 1991; 9: 13-17.
70. Fink M, Irwin P, Wienfeld R, et al. Blood levels and electroencephalographic effects of diazepam and bromazepam. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1976; 20: 184-191.
71. Livingston J, Brown J. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus resistant to benzodiazepines. Arch Dis Child 1987; 62: 41-44.
72. Clifford D, Olney J, Benz A, et al. Ketamine, phencyclidine, and MK-801 protect against kainic acid-induced seizure-related brain damage. Epilepsia 1990; 31: 38290.
73. Ferrer-Allado T, Berchnre V, Dymond A, et al. Ketamine-induced electroconvulsive phenomena in the human limbic and thalamic regions. Anesthesiology 1973; 38: 333-344.
74. Bennett D, Madsen J, Jordan W, et al. Ketamine anesthesia in brain-damaged epileptics: electroencephalographic and clinical observations. Neurology 1973; 23: 449-460.
75. Anis N, Berry S, Burton N, Lodge D. The dissociative anesthetics, ketamine and phenycyclidine, selectively reduce excitation of central mammalian neurones by N-methyl-aspartate. Br J Pharmacol 1983; 79: 565-575.
76. Clifford D, Zomruski C, Olney J. Ketamine and MK-801 prevent degeneration of thalamic neurons induced by focal cortical seizures. Exp Neurol 1989; 105: 272-279.
77. MacKenzie S, Kapadia F, Grant I. Propofol infusion for control of status epilepticus. Anaesthesia 1990; 45: 1043-1045.
78. Merigian K, Browning R, Leeper K. Successful treatment of amoxapineinduced refractory status epilepticus with propofol (diprivan). Acad Emerg Med 1995; 2: 128-133.
79. Kuisma M, Roine R. Propofol in prehospital treatment of convulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsia 1995; 36: 1241-1243.
80. Pitt-Miller P, Elcock B, Maharaj M. The management of status epilepticus with a continuous propofol infusion. Anesth Analg 1994; 78: 1193-1194.
81. Heavner J, Arthur J, Zou J, et al. Comparison of propofol with thiopentone for treatment of bupivacaine-induced seizures in rats. Br J Anaesth 1993; 71: 715-719.
82. Hasan Z, Woolley D. Comparison of the effects of propofol and thiopental on the pattern of maximal electroshock seizures in the rat. Pharmacol Toxicol 1994; 74: 50-53.
83. Drummond J, Iragui-Modaz V, Alksne C, et al. Masking of epileptiform activity by propofol during seizure surgery. Anesthesiology 1992; 76: 652-654.
84. Rampil I, Lopez C, Laxer K, et al. Propofol sedation may disrupt interictal epilepiform activity from a seizure focus. Anesth Analg 1993; 77: 1071-1073.
85. Cascino G, So E, Sharbrough F, et al. Alfentanil-induced epileptiform activity in patients with partial epilepsy. J Clin Neurophysiol 1993; 10: 520-.
86. Kofke W, Garman RH, Garman R, Rose M. Opioid neurotoxicity: role of neurotransmitter systems [abstract]. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1995; 7: 321.
87. Corrigall W. Opiates and the hippocampus: a review of the functional and morphological evidence. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1983; 18: 255-262.
88. Henriksen S, Bloom F, McCoy F, et al. Beta-endorphin induces nonconvulsive limbic seizures. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1978; 75: 5221-5225.
89. Siggins G, Henriksen S, Chavkin C, et al. Opioid peptides and epileptogenesis in the limbic system: cellular mechanisms. Adv Neurol 1986; 44: 501-512.
90. Zieglgansberger W, French E, Siggins G, et al. Opioid peptides may excite hippocampal pyramidal neurons by inhibiting adjacent inhibitory interneurons. Science 1979; 205: 415-417.
91. Tortella F. Endogenous opioid peptides and epilepsy: quieting the seizing brain? Trends Pharmacol Sci 1988; 9: 366-372.
92. Cheng J, Xie X. A study on opioid peptides in CSF of patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 1990; 6: 141-145.
93. Myer E, Trepathi H, Dewey W. Cerebrospinal fluid fx1-endorphin immunoreactivity in epilepsy and the response to naltrexone [abstract]. Epilepsia 1990; 31: 611.
94. Chugani H, Ackermann R, Chugani D, et al. Opioid-induced epileptogenic phenomena: anatomical, behavioral, and electroencephalographic features. Ann Neurol 1984; 15: 361-368.
95. Dua A, Pinsky C, LaBella F. Mu-and delta-opioid receptor-mediated epileptoid responses in morphine-dependent and nondependent rats. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1985; 61: 569-572.
96. Stutzmann J, Bohme G, Roques B, et al. Differential electrographic patterns for specific mu-and delta-opioid peptides in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 1986; 123: 53-59.
97. Snead OI, Bearden L. The epileptogenic spectrum of opiate agonists. Neuropharmacology 1982; 21: 1137-1144.
98. Puglisi-Allagra S, Castellano C, Csanyl V, et al. Opioid antagonism of electroshock-induced seizures. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1984; 30: 767-769.
99. Benthuysen J, Stanley T. Concerning the possible nature of reported fentanyl seizures [letter]. Anesthesiology 1985; 62: 205.
100. Molbegott L, Flashburg M, Karasic H, et al. Probable seizures after sufentanil. Anesth Analg 1987; 66: 91-93.
101. Rosman E, Capan L, Turndorf H. Another case of probable seizure after sufentanil [letter]. Anesth Analg 1987; 66: 922.
102. Scott J, Sarnquist F. Seizure-like movements during a fentanyl infusion with absence of seizure activity in a simultaneous EEG recording. Anesthesiology 1985; 62: 812-814.
103. Strong W, Matson M. Probable seizure after alfentanil. Anesth Analg 1989; 68: 692-693.
104. Smith NT, Benthuysen JL, Bickford RG, et al. Seizures during opioid anesthetic induction: are they opioid-induced rigidity? Anesthesiology 1989; 71: 852-862.
105. Kearse LJ, Koski G, Husain M, et al. Epileptiform activity during opioid anesthesia. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiolalogr 1993; 87: 374-379.
106. Tempelhoff R, Modica P, Bernardo K, et al. Fentanyl-induced electrocortographic seizures in patients with complex partial epilepsy. J Neurosurg 1992; 77: 201-208.
107. Kofke WA, Tempelhoff R, Dasheiff RM. Anesthetic implications of epilepsy, status epilepticus, and epilepsy surgery. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1997; 9: 349-372.
108. Hisada K, Morioka T, Fukui K, et al. Effects of sevoflurane and isoflurane on electrocorticographic activities in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 2001; 13: 333-337.
109. Kurita N, Kawaguchi M, Hoshida T, et al. The effects of sevoflurane and hyperventilation on electrocorticogram spike activity in patients with refractory epilepsy. Anesth Analg 2005; 101: 517-523. (Pubitemid 41045239)
110. Constant I, Seeman R, Murat I, et al. Sevoflurane and epileptiform EEG changes. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15: 266-274.
111. Kurita N, Kawaguchi M, Hoshida T, et al. Effects of nitrous oxide on spike activity on electrocorticogram under sevoflurane anesthesia in epileptic patients. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 2005; 17: 199-202. (Pubitemid 41395895)
112. Bauer J, Hageman I, Dam H, et al. Comparison of propofol and thiopental as anesthetic agents for electroconvulsive therapy: a randomized, blinded comparison of seizure duration, stimulus charge, clinical effect, and cognitive side effects. J ECT 2009; 25: 85-90.
113. Rossetti AO, Reichhart MD, Schaller MD, et al. Propofol treatment of refractory status epilepticus: a study of 31 episodes. Epilepsia 2004; 45: 757-763.
114. Hirsch NP, Smith M. Review of the evidence for the use of propofol in the management of status epilepticus. J Neurol 2003; 250: 1241.
115. Kofke W, Tempelhoff R, Dasheiff R. Anesthetic implications of epilepsy, status epilepticus, and epilepsy surgery [review]. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1997; 9: 349-372.
116. Kofke WA, Blissitt PA, Rao H, et al. Remifentanil-induced cerebral blood flow effects in normal humans: dose and ApoE genotype. Anesth Analg 2007; 105: 167-175.
117. Sullivan PM, Sinz EH, Gunel E, Kofke WA. A retrospective comparison of remifentanil versus methohexital for anesthesia in electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT 2004; 20: 219-224.
118. Nadkarni S, LaJoie J, Devinsky O, et al. Current treatments of epilepsy. Neurology 2005; 64 (12 Suppl 3) : S2-S11.
119. Stefan H, Feuerstein TJ. Novel anticonvulsant drugs. Pharmacol Ther 2007; 113: 165-183.
120. LaRoche SM, Helmers SL. The new antiepileptic drugs: scientific review [see comment]. JAMA 2004; 291: 605-614.
121. Bhigjee AI, Rosemberg S. Optimizing therapy of seizures in patients with HIV and cysticercosis. Neurology 2006; 67 (12 Suppl 4) : 19-22.
122. Brodie MJ, Kwan P. Epilepsy in elderly people. BMJ 2005; 331: 1317-1322.
123. Chabolla DR, Wszolek ZK. Pharmacologic management of seizures in organ transplant. Neurology 2006; 67 (12 Suppl 4) : S34-S38.
124. Guerrini R. Epilepsy in children. Lancet 2006; 367: 499-524.
125. Lacerda G, Krummel T, Sabourdy C, et al. Optimizing therapy of seizures in patients with renal or hepatic dysfunction. Neurology 2006; 67 (12 Suppl 4) : 28-33.
126. Michelucci R. Optimizing therapy of seizures in neurosurgery. Neurology 2006; 67 (12 Suppl 4) : 14-18.
127. Ryvlin P, Montavont A, Nighoghossian N. Optimizing therapy of seizures in stroke patients. Neurology 2006; 67 (12 Suppl 4) : 3-9.
128. Steinhoff BJ. Optimizing therapy of seizures in patients with endocrine disorders. Neurology 2006; 67 (12 Suppl 4) : 23-27.
129. Vecht CJ, van Breemen M. Optimizing therapy of seizures in patients with brain tumors. Neurology 2006; 67 (12 Suppl 4) : 10-13.
130. Gatti G, Bonomi I, Jannuzzi G, Perucca E. The new antiepileptic drugs: pharmacological and clinical aspects. Curr Pharm Des 2000; 6: 839-860.
131. Perucca E. Marketed new antiepileptic drugs: are they better than oldgeneration agents? Ther Drug Monit 2002; 24: 74-80.
132. Foldavary-Shaefer N, Wyllie E. Neuropharmacology of the antiepileptic drugs. In: Goetz C, editor. Textbook of clinical neurology, 2nd ed. New York, USA: Elsevier; 2003. pp. 1177-1181.
133. Lacerda G, Krummel T, Sabourdy C, et al. Optimizing therapy of seizures in patients with renal or hepatic dysfunction. Neurology 2006; 67 (12 Suppl 4) : S28-S33.
134. French JA, Kanner AM, Bautista J, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of the new antiepileptic drugs I: treatment of new onset epilepsy - report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee and Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society [see comment]. Neurology 2004; 62: 1252-1260. (Pubitemid 38526035)
135. Mattson RH. Medical management of epilepsy in adults. Neurology 1998; 51 (5 Suppl 4) : S15-S20.
136. Bourgeois BF. Pharmacokinetic properties of current antiepileptic drugs: what improvements are needed? Neurology 2000; 55 (11 Suppl 3) : S11-S16.
137. Steinhoff BJ. Optimizing therapy of seizures in patients with endocrine disorders. Neurology 2006; 67 (12 Suppl 4) : S23-S27.
138. Pfizer. Dilantin capsule drug label; 2007. http://www.pfizer.com/files/ products/uspi-dilantinpdf. [Accessed 26 March 2008]
139. Wagner JG. Time to reach steady state and prediction of steady-state concentrations for drugs obeying Michaelis-Menten elimination kinetics. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1978; 6: 209-225.
140. Browne TR. Pharmacokinetics of antiepileptic drugs. Neurology 1998; 51 (5 Suppl 4) : S2-S7.
141. Rogers JF, Nafziger AN, Bertino JS Jr, et al. Pharmacogenetics affects dosing, efficacy, and toxicity of cytochrome P450-metabolized drugs. Am J Med 2002; 113: 746-750.
142. Parke-Davis. Cerebyx drug label; 2003. http://www.pfizer.com/files/ products/uspi-cerebyxpdf. [Accessed 24 March 2008]
143. Manno EM. New management strategies in the treatment of status epilepticus. Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78: 508-518.
144. Abramowicz M. Drugs for epilepsy. Treat Guidel Med Lett 2008; 6: •• 37-48. A nice overview of antiepileptic drugs.
145. Carreno M. Levetiracetam. Drugs Today 2007; 43: 769-794.
146. Sirsi D, Safdieh JE. The safety of levetiracetam. Expert Opin Drug Safety 2007; 6: 241-250.
147. DeSmedt T, Raedt R, Vonck K, et al. Levetiracetam: part II, the clinical profile of a novel anticonvulsant drug. CNS Drug Rev 2007; 13: 57-78. (Pubitemid 46705269)
148. De Smedt T, Raedt R, Vonck K, et al. Levetiracetam: the profile of a novel anticonvulsant drug-part I-preclinical data. CNS Drug Rev 2007; 13: 43-56.
149. Leach JP. Levetiracetam in the management of epilepsy. Hosp Med (London) 2004; 65: 740-744.
150. Patsalos PN. Clinical pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam. Clin Pharmacokinet 2004; 43: 707-724.
151. Arroyo S, Crawford P. Safety profile of levetiracetam. Epileptic Disord 2003; 5 (Suppl 1) : S57-S63.
152. Willmore LJ. Clinical pharmacology of new antiepileptic drugs. Neurology 2000; 55 (11 Suppl 3) : S17-S24.
153. UCB. Keppra drug label; 2007. http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2007/ 021035s057, 021505s013lblpdf. [Accessed 25 March 2008]
154. French JA, Kanner AM, Bautista J, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of the new antiepileptic drugs II: treatment of refractory epilepsy - report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee and Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society [see comment]. Neurology 2004; 62: 1261-1273. (Pubitemid 38526036)
155. McNamara JO. Pharmacotherapy of the epilepsies [chapter 19]. In: Brunton LL, Lazo JS, Parker KL, editors. Goodman & Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics, 11th ed. http://www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx?aID= 939716; 2006.
156. Ebrahim Z, Bulkley R, Roth S. Carbamazepine therapy and neuromuscular blockade with atracurium or vecuronium. Anesth Analg 1988; 67: S55.
157. Ornstein E, Matteo R, Schwartz A, et al. The effect of phenytoin on the magnitude and duration of neuromuscular block following atracurium or vecuronium. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 191-196.
158. Ornstein E, Matteo R, Young W, et al. Resistance to metocurine-induced neuromuscular blockade in patients receiving phenytoin. Anesthesiology 1985; 63: 294-298.
159. Roth S, Ebrahim Z. Resistance to pancuronium in patients receiving carbamazepine. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 691-693.
160. Tempelhoff R, Modica P, Jellish W, et al. Resistance to atracurium-induced neuromuscular blockade in patients with intractable seizure disorders treated with anticonvulsants. Anesth Analg 1990; 71: 665-669.
161. Liberman BA, Norman P, Hardy BG. Pancuronium-phenytoin interaction: a case of decreased duration of neuromuscular blockade. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1988; 26: 371-374.
162. Szenohradszky J, Caldwell JE, Sharma ML, et al. Interaction of rocuronium (ORG 9426) and phenytoin in a patient undergoing cadaver renal transplantation: a possible pharmacokinetic mechanism? Anesthesiology 1994; 80: 1167-1170.
163. Ornstein E, Matteo R, Weinstein J, et al. Accelerated recovery from doxacurium-induced neuromuscular blockade in patients receiving chronic anticonvulsant therapy. J Clin Anesth 1991; 3: 108-111.
164. Hans P, Ledoux D, Bonhomme V, et al. Effect of anticonvulsant level on pipecuronium-induced neuromuscular blockade: preliminary results. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1995; 7: 254-258.
165. Spacek A, Neiger F, Katz R, et al. Chronic carbamazepine therapy and the duration of neuromuscular blockade (NB) by rocuronium [abstract]. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1995; 7: 319.
166. Fernandez-Candil J, Gambus PL, Troconiz IF, et al. Pharmacokinetic-• pharmacodynamic modeling of the influence of chronic phenytoin therapy on the rocuronium bromide response in patients undergoing brain surgery. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2008; 64: 795-806. Recent report underscoring the continued presence of phenytoin-induced resistance to the newer neuromuscular blocking drugs.
167. Tempelhoff R, Modica P, Spitznagel EJ. Anticonvulsant therapy increases fentanyl requirements during anaesthesia for craniotomy. Can J Anaesth 1990; 37: 327-332.
168. Jenner MA, Plummer JL, Cousins MJ. Halothane reductive metabolism in an adult surgical population. Anaesth Intensive Care 1990; 18: 395-399.
169. Gruenke L, Konopka K, Koop D, et al. Characterization of halothane oxidation by hepatic microsomes and purified cytochromes P-450 using gas chromatographic mass spectrometric assay. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1988; 246: 454-459.
170. Nomura F, Hatano H, Ohnishi K, et al. Effects of anticonvulsant agents on halothane-induced liver injury in human subjects and experimental animals. Hepatology 1986; 6: 952-956.
171. Farrell G, Prendergast D, Murray M. Halothane hepatitis: detection of a constitutional susceptibility factor. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1310-1314.
172. Kofke W, Tempelhoff R, Dasheiff R. Anesthesia for epileptic patients and for epilepsy surgery. In: Cottrell J, Smith D, editors. Anesthesia and neurosurgery. 3rd ed. Mosby Yearbook Co.; 1994.
173. Trimble M. Psychiatric aspects of epilepsy. Psychiatr Dev 1987; 5: 285-300.
174. Aird R, Masland R, Woodburg D. The epilepsies: a critical review. New York, USA: Raven Press; 1984.
175. Delgado-Escueta A, Wasterlain C, Treiman D, et al. Current concepts in neurology: management of status epilepticus. N Engl J Med 1982; 306: 1337-1340.
176. Treatment of convulsive status epilepticus. Recommendations of the Epilepsy Foundation of America's Working Group on Status Epilepticus. JAMA 1993; 270: 854-859.
177. Corsellis J, Bruton C. Neuropathology of status epilepticus in humans. Adv Neurol 1983; 34: 129-139.
178. Nevander G, Ingvar M, Auer R, et al. Status epilepticus in well oxygenated rats causes neuronal necrosis. Ann Neurol 1985; 18: 281-290.
179. O'Connell B, Towfighi J, Kofke W, et al. Neuronal lesions in mercaptopropionic acid-induced status epilepticus. Acta Neuropathol 1988; 77: 47-54.
180. Towfighi J, Kofke W, O'Connell B. Substantia nigra lesions in mercaptopropionic acid induced status epilepticus: a light and electron microscopic study. Acta Neuropathol 1989; 77: 612-620.
181. Wilder B. Efficacy of phenytoin in treatment of status epilepticus. Adv Neurol 1983; 34: 441-446.
182. Glaser G. Medical complications of status epilepticus. Adv Neurol 1983; 34: 395-398.
183. Oxbury J, Whitty C. Causes and consequences of status epilepticus in adults. A study of 86 cases. Brain 1971; 94: 733-744.
184. Kofke WA, Ahdab-Barmada M, Rose M, et al. Substantia nigra damage after fluorothyl-induced seizures in rats worsens after postseizure recovery: no exacerbation with hyperglycaemia. Neurol Res 1993; 15: 333-338.
185. Swan J, Meldrum B, Simon R. Hyperglycemia does not augment neuronal damage in experimental status epilepticus. Neurology 1986; 36: 1351.
186. Mayhue FE. IM Midazolam for status epilepticus in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 1988; 17: 643-645.
187. Fisher M. Use of ketamine hydrochloride in the treatment of convulsions. Anaesth Intensive Care 1974; 2: 266-268.