Twisted blood vessels: Symptoms, etiology and biomechanical mechanisms

Journal of Vascular Research

Volumn 49, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 185-197

  Han, Hai Chao ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

Author keywords

Artery tortuosity; Mechanical buckling; Mechanical instability; Vessel tortuosity; Wall remodeling

Indexed keywords

ANGIOGRAPHY; BIOMECHANICS; CONGENITAL BLOOD VESSEL MALFORMATION; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SYMPTOM; VASCULAR DISEASE;

ANIMALS; BIOMECHANICS; HUMANS; PULSATILE FLOW; TORSION ABNORMALITY; TORSION, MECHANICAL; VARICOSE VEINS; VASCULAR DISEASES;

EID: 84858324239     PISSN: 10181172     EISSN: 14230135     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000335123     Document Type: Review

References (169)

1. Weibel J, Fields WS: Tortuosity, coiling, and kinking of the internal carotid artery. I. Etiology and radiographic anatomy. Neurology 1965; 15: 7-18.
2. Schep G, Kaandorp DW, Bender MH, Weerdenburg H, van Engeland S, Wijn PF: Magnetic resonance angiography used to detect kinking in the iliac arteries in endurance athletes with claudication. Physiol Meas 2001; 22: 475-487. (Pubitemid 32799885)
3. Helisch A, Schaper W: Arteriogenesis: the development and growth of collateral arteries. Microcirculation 2003; 10: 83-97. (Pubitemid 39004238)
4. Del Corso L, Moruzzo D, Conte B, Agelli M, Romanelli AM, Pastine F, Protti M, Pentimone F, Baggiani G: Tortuosity, kinking, and coiling of the carotid artery: expression of atherosclerosis or aging? Angiology 1998; 49: 361-371. (Pubitemid 28237163)
5. Hiroki M, Miyashita K, Oda M: Tortuosity of the white matter medullary arterioles is related to the severity of hypertension. Cerebrovasc Dis 2002; 13: 242-250. (Pubitemid 34518718)
6. Pancera P, Ribul M, Presciuttini B, Lechi A: Prevalence of carotid artery kinking in 590 consecutive subjects evaluated by echo-color Doppler. Is there a correlation with arterial hypertension? J Intern Med 2000; 248: 7-12. (Pubitemid 30469998)
7. Callewaert BL, Willaert A, Kerstjens-Frederikse WS, De Backer J, Devriendt K, Albrecht B, Ramos-Arroyo MA, Doco-Fenzy M, Hennekam RC, Pyeritz RE, Krogmann ON, Gillessen-Kaesbach G, Wakeling EL, Nik-Zainal S, Francannet C, Mauran P, Booth C, Barrow M, Dekens R, Loeys BL, Coucke PJ, De Paepe AM: Arterial tortuosity syndrome: clinical and molecular findings in 12 newly identified families. Hum Mutat 2008; 29: 150-158.
8. Owen CG, Newsom RS, Rudnicka AR, Barman SA, Woodward EG, Ellis TJ: Diabetes and the tortuosity of vessels of the bulbar conjunctiva. Ophthalmology 2008; 115:e27-32.
9. Grego F, Lepidi S, Cognolato D, Frigatti P, Morelli I, Deriu GP: Rationale of the surgical treatment of carotid kinking. J Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 44: 79-85. (Pubitemid 36527374)
10. Cheng CP, Wilson NM, Hallett RL, Herfkens RJ, Taylor CA: In vivo MR angiographic quantification of axial and twisting deformations of the superficial femoral artery resulting from maximum hip and knee flexion. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2006; 17: 979-987. (Pubitemid 44315474)
11. Trucco E, Azegrouz H, Dhillon B: Modeling the tortuosity of retinal vessels: does caliber play a role? IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2010; 57: 2239-2247.
12. Metz H, Murray-Leslie RM, Bannister RG, Bull JW, Marshall J: Kinking of the internal carotid artery. Lancet 1961; 1: 424-426.
13. Soikkonen K, Wolf J, Mattila K: Tortuosity of the lingual artery and coronary atherosclerosis. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1995; 33: 309-311.
14. Giuffre R, Sherkat S: The vertebral artery: developmental pathology. J Neurosurg Sci 1999; 43: 175-189. (Pubitemid 30217098)
15. Benes V, Netuka D: Surgical correction of symptomatic vertebral artery kinking. Br J Neurosurg 2003; 17: 174-178. (Pubitemid 36760442)
16. Dawson DL, Hellinger JC, Terramani TT, Najibi S, Martin LG, Lumsden AB: Iliac artery kinking with endovascular therapies: technical considerations. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2002; 13: 729-733. (Pubitemid 34793028)
17. Segal R, Machiraju U, Larkins M: Tortuous peripheral arteries: a cause of focal neuropathy. Case report. J Neurosurg 1992; 76: 701-704.
18. Jogiya A, Sandy C: Mild optic nerve hypoplasia with retinal venous tortuosity in Aarskog (facial-digital-genital) syndrome. Ophthalmic Genet 2005; 26: 139-141. (Pubitemid 43194122)
19. Ferris BL, Taylor LM Jr, Oyama K, McLafferty RB, Edwards JM, Moneta GL, Porter JM: Hypothenar hammer syndrome: proposed etiology. J Vasc Surg 2000; 31: 104-113. (Pubitemid 30067307)
20. Hayreh SS, Servais GE, Virdi PS: Retinal arteriolar changes in malignant arterial hypertension. Ophthalmologica 1989; 198: 178-196. (Pubitemid 19143848)
21. Gekeler F, Shinoda K, Junger M, Bartz-Schmidt KU, Gelisken F: Familial retinal arterial tortuosity associated with tortuosity in nail bed capillaries. Arch Ophthalmol 2006; 124: 1492-1494. (Pubitemid 44537156)
22. Amemiya T, Bhutto IA: Retinal vascular changes and systemic diseases: corrosion cast demonstration. Ital J Anat Embryol 2001; 106: 237-244.
23. Poni ES, Liwnicz BH, Ying-Ying Y, North M: Tortuosity of terminal arterioles in the basal ganglia is increased in status lacunaris. Invest Clin 2003; 44: 137-145. (Pubitemid 37444095)
24. Thore CR, Anstrom JA, Moody DM, Challa VR, Marion MC, Brown WR: Morphometric analysis of arteriolar tortuosity in human cerebral white matter of preterm, young, and aged subjects. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2007; 66: 337-345. (Pubitemid 46701315)
25. Batra S, Rakusan K: Capillary length, tortuosity, and spacing in rat myocardium during cardiac cycle. Am J Physiol 1992; 263:H1369-1376.
26. Mathieu-Costello O, Potter RF, Ellis CG, Groom AC: Capillary configuration and fiber shortening in muscles of the rat hindlimb: correlation between corrosion casts and stereological measurements. Microvasc Res 1988; 36: 40-55.
27. Pries AR, Secomb TW: Structural adaptation of microvascular networks and development of hypertension. Microcirculation 2002; 9: 305-314. (Pubitemid 135685865)
28. Pries AR, Cornelissen AJ, Sloot AA, Hinkeldey M, Dreher MR, Hopfner M, Dewhirst MW, Secomb TW: Structural adaptation and heterogeneity of normal and tumor microvascular networks. PLoS Comput Biol 2009; 5:e1000394.
29. Vakoc BJ, Lanning RM, Tyrrell JA, Padera TP, Bartlett LA, Stylianopoulos T, Munn LL, Tearney GJ, Fukumura D, Jain RK, Bouma BE: Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging. Nat Med 2009; 15: 1219-1223.
30. Zegers ES, Meursing BT, Zegers EB, Oude Ophuis AJ: Coronary tortuosity: a long and winding road. Neth Heart J 2007; 15: 191-195. (Pubitemid 47253675)
31. Turgut O, Yilmaz A, Yalta K, Yilmaz BM, Ozyol A, Kendirlioglu O, Karadas F, Tandogan I: Tortuosity of coronary arteries: an indicator for impaired left ventricular relaxation? Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2007; 23: 671-677. (Pubitemid 350055689)
32. Jakob M, Spasojevic D, Krogmann ON, Wiher H, Hug R, Hess OM: Tortuosity of coronary arteries in chronic pressure and volume overload. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn 1996; 38: 25-31. (Pubitemid 26133770)
33. Hutchins GM, Miner MM, Bulkley BH: Tortuosity as an index of the age and diameter increase of coronary collateral vessels in patients after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 1978; 41: 210-215. (Pubitemid 8318638)
34. Choy M, Ganesan V, Thomas DL, Thornton JS, Proctor E, King MD, van der Weerd L, Gadian DG, Lythgoe MF: The chronic vascular and haemodynamic response after permanent bilateral common carotid occlusion in newborn and adult rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2006; 26: 1066-1075. (Pubitemid 44134077)
35. Hoi Y, Gao L, Tremmel M, Paluch RA, Siddiqui AH, Meng H, Mocco J: In vivo assessment of rapid cerebrovascular morphological adaptation following acute blood flow increase. J Neurosurg 2008; 109: 1141-1147.
36. Sahni D, Jit I, Lal V: Variations and anomalies of the posterior communicating artery in Northwest Indian brains. Surg Neurol 2007; 68: 449-453. (Pubitemid 47464457)
37. Boyle JR, Thompson MM, Clode-Baker EG, Green J, Bolia A, Fishwick G, Bell PR: Torsion and kinking of unsupported aortic endografts: treatment by endovascular intervention. J Endovasc Surg 1998; 5: 216-221. (Pubitemid 28436495)
38. Camiade C, Maher A, Ricco JB, Roumy J, Febrer G, Marchand C, Neau JP: Carotid bypass with polytetrafluoroethylene grafts: a study of 110 consecutive patients. J Vasc Surg 2003; 38: 1031-1037;(discussion)1038.
39. Dobrin PB, Hodgett D, Canfield T, Mrkvicka R: Mechanical determinants of graft kinking. Ann Vasc Surg 2001; 15: 343-349. (Pubitemid 32520552)
40. Han HC, Zhao L, Huang M, Hou LS, Huang YT, Kuang ZB: Postsurgical changes of the opening angle of canine autogenous vein graft. J Biomech Eng 1998; 120: 211-216. (Pubitemid 28194398)
41. Canver CC: A draping technique for prevention of coronary bypass graft kinking and suture-line oozing. J Card Surg 1996; 11: 408-410. (Pubitemid 27133462)
42. Pascarella L, Schmid Schonbein GW: Causes of telengiectasias, reticular veins, and varicose veins. Semin Vasc Surg 2005; 18: 2-4. (Pubitemid 40386970)
43. Bergan JJ, Pascarella L, Schmid-Schonbein GW: Pathogenesis of primary chronic venous disease: Insights from animal models of venous hypertension. J Vasc Surg 2008; 47: 183-192.
44. Herzog S, Sager H, Khmelevski E, Deylig A, Ito WD: Collateral arteries grow from preexisting anastomoses in the rat hindlimb. Am J Physiol 2002; 283:H2012-2020. (Pubitemid 35217036)
45. Schierling W, Troidl K, Troidl C, Schmitz-Rixen T, Schaper W, Eitenmuller IK: The role of angiogenic growth factors in arteriogenesis. J Vasc Res 2009; 46: 365-374.
46. Shireman PK, Quinones MP: Differential necrosis despite similar perfusion in mouse strains after ischemia. J Surg Res 2005; 129: 242-250. (Pubitemid 41797059)
47. Schaper W, Buschmann I: VEGF and therapeutic opportunities in cardiovascular diseases. Curr Opin Biotechnol 1999; 10: 541-543.
48. Wolf YG, Tillich M, Lee WA, Rubin GD, Fogarty TJ, Zarins CK: Impact of aortoiliac tortuosity on endovascular repair of abdominal aortic aneurysms: evaluation of 3D computer-based assessment. J Vasc Surg 2001; 34: 594-599. (Pubitemid 33664905)
49. Cheung CY, Zheng Y, Hsu W, Lee ML, Lau QP, Mitchell P, Wang JJ, Klein R, Wong TY: Retinal vascular tortuosity, blood pressure, and cardiovascular risk factors. Ophthalmology 2011; 118: 812-818.
50. Hart WE, Goldbaum M, Cote B, Kube P, Nelson MR: Measurement and classification of retinal vascular tortuosity. Int J Med Inform 1999; 53: 239-252. (Pubitemid 29101723)
51. Dougherty G, Johnson MJ, Wiers MD: Measurement of retinal vascular tortuosity and its application to retinal pathologies. Med Biol Eng Comput 2010; 48: 87-95.
52. Koreen S, Gelman R, Martinez-Perez ME, Jiang L, Berrocal AM, Hess DJ, Flynn JT, Chiang MF: Evaluation of a computer-based system for plus disease diagnosis in retinopathy of prematurity. Ophthalmology 2007; 114:e59-e67. (Pubitemid 350182458)
53. Han HC: A biomechanical model of artery buckling. J Biomech 2007; 40: 3672-3678. (Pubitemid 350122512)
54. Martinez R, Fierro CA, Shireman PK, Han HC: Mechanical buckling of veins under internal pressure. Ann Biomed Eng 2010; 38: 1345-1353.
55. Capowski JJ, Kylstra JA, Freedman SF: A numeric index based on spatial frequency for the tortuosity of retinal vessels and its application to plus disease in retinopathy of prematurity. Retina 1995; 15: 490-500. (Pubitemid 26002417)
56. Grisan E, Foracchia M, Ruggeri A: A novel method for the automatic grading of retinal vessel tortuosity. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 2008; 27: 310-319. (Pubitemid 351324780)
57. Smedby O, Bergstrand L: Tortuosity and atherosclerosis in the femoral artery: what is cause and what is effect? Ann Biomed Eng 1996; 24: 474-480.
58. Thomas JB, Antiga L, Che SL, Milner JS, Steinman DA, Spence JD, Rutt BK: Variation in the carotid bifurcation geometry of young versus older adults: implications for geometric risk of atherosclerosis. Stroke 2005; 36: 2450-2456. (Pubitemid 41566976)
59. Lam RC, Lin SC, DeRubertis B, Hynecek R, Kent KC, Faries PL: The impact of increasing age on anatomic factors affecting carotid angioplasty and stenting. J Vasc Surg 2007; 45: 875-880. (Pubitemid 46656325)
60. Cartwright MS, Hickling WH, Roach ES: Ischemic stroke in an adolescent with arterial tortuosity syndrome. Neurology 2006; 67: 360-361. (Pubitemid 44305438)
61. Aleksic M, Schutz G, Gerth S, Mulch J: Surgical approach to kinking and coiling of the internal carotid artery. J Cardiovasc Surg 2004; 45: 43-48. (Pubitemid 38514976)
62. Schep G, Bender MH, van de Tempel G, Wijn PF, de Vries WR, Eikelboom BC: Detection and treatment of claudication due to functional iliac obstruction in top endurance athletes: a prospective study. Lancet 2002; 359: 466-473. (Pubitemid 34164292)
63. Oliviero U, Scherillo G, Casaburi C, Di Martino M, Di Gianni A, Serpico R, Fazio S, Sacca L: Prospective evaluation of hypertensive patients with carotid kinking and coiling: an ultrasonographic 7-year study. Angiology 2003; 54: 169-175. (Pubitemid 36350688)
64. Macchi C, Gulisano M, Giannelli F, Catini C, Pratesi C, Pacini P: Kinking of the human internal carotid artery: a statistical study in 100 healthy subjects by echocolor Doppler. J Cardiovasc Surg 1997; 38: 629-637. (Pubitemid 28040721)
65. Togay-Isikay C, Kim J, Betterman K, Andrews C, Meads D, Tesh P, Tegeler C, Oztuna D: Carotid artery tortuosity, kinking, coiling: stroke risk factor, marker, or curiosity? Acta Neurol Belg 2005; 105: 68-72. (Pubitemid 40975112)
66. Ochsner JL, Hughes JP, Leonard GL, Mills NL: Elastic tissue dysplasia of the internal carotid artery. Ann Surg 1977; 185: 684-691. (Pubitemid 8117359)
67. Wagenseil JE, Nerurkar NL, Knutsen RH, Okamoto RJ, Li DY, Mecham RP: Effects of elastin haploinsufficiency on the mechanical behavior of mouse arteries. Am J Physiol 2005; 289:H1209-H1217. (Pubitemid 41208965)
68. White JV, Haas K, Phillips S, Comerota AJ: Adventitial elastolysis is a primary event in aneurysm formation. J Vasc Surg 1993; 17: 371-380;(discussion) 380-371.
69. Spangler KM, Challa VR, Moody DM, Bell MA: Arteriolar tortuosity of the white matter in aging and hypertension. A microradiographic study. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1994; 53: 22-26. (Pubitemid 24022083)
70. Burke GM, Burke AM, Sherma AK, Hurley MC, Batjer HH, Bendok BR: Moyamoya disease: a summary. Neurosurg Focus 2009; 26:E11.
71. Li H, Zhang ZS, Liu W, Yang WZ, Dong ZN, Ma MJ, Han C, Yang H, Cao WC, Duan L: Association of a functional polymorphism in the MMP-3 gene with Moyamoya disease in the Chinese Han population. Cerebrovasc Dis 2010; 30: 618-625.
72. Ruan LT, Duan YY, Cao TS, Zhuang L, Huang L: Color and power Doppler sonography of extracranial and intracranial arteries in Moyamoya disease. J Clin Ultrasound 2006; 34: 60-69.
73. Hafeez F, Levine RL, Dulli DA: Pulsatile tinnitus in cerebrovascular arterial diseases. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 1999; 8: 217-223.
74. Factor SM, Minase T, Cho S, Fein F, Capasso JM, Sonnenblick EH: Coronary microvascular abnormalities in the hypertensive-diabetic rat. A primary cause of cardiomyopathy? Am J Pathol 1984; 116: 9-20. (Pubitemid 14087089)
75. Ellis SG, Vandormael MG, Cowley MJ, DiSciascio G, Deligonul U, Topol EJ, Bulle TM: Coronary morphologic and clinical determinants of procedural outcome with angioplasty for multivessel coronary disease. Implications for patient selection. Multivessel Angioplasty Prognosis study group. Circulation 1990; 82: 1193-1202.
76. Nemoto O, Kawaguchi M, Yaoita H, Miyake K, Maehara K, Maruyama Y: Left ventricular dysfunction and remodeling in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Circ J 2006; 70: 327-334.
77. Said SA, Hofman MB, Beek AM, van der Werf T, van Rossum AC: Feasibility of cardiovascular magnetic resonance of angiographically diagnosed congenital solitary coronary artery fistulas in adults. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2007; 9: 575-583. (Pubitemid 46399011)
78. Hughes AD, Martinez-Perez E, Jabbar AS, Hassan A, Witt NW, Mistry PD, Chapman N, Stanton AV, Beevers G, Pedrinelli R, Parker KH, Thom SA: Quantification of topological changes in retinal vascular architecture in essential and malignant hypertension. J Hypertens 2006; 24: 889-894. (Pubitemid 43670460)
79. Taarnhoj NC, Munch IC, Sander B, Kessel L, Hougaard JL, Kyvik K, Sorensen TI, Larsen M: Straight versus tortuous retinal arteries in relation to blood pressure and genetics. Br J Ophthalmol 2008; 92: 1055-1060.
80. Sutter FK, Helbig H: Familial retinal arteriolar tortuosity: a review. Surv Ophthalmol 2003; 48: 245-255. (Pubitemid 36553095)
81. Vahedi K, Massin P, Guichard JP, Miocque S, Polivka M, Goutieres F, Dress D, Chapon F, Ruchoux MM, Riant F, Joutel A, Gaudric A, Bousser MG, Tournier-Lasserve E: Hereditary infantile hemiparesis, retinal arteriolar tortuosity, and leukoencephalopathy. Neurology 2003; 60: 57-63. (Pubitemid 36070644)
82. Cheng CH, Kikuchi T, Chen YH, Sabbagha NG, Lee YC, Pan HJ, Chang C, Chen YT: Mutations in the SLC2A10 gene cause arterial abnormalities in mice. Cardiovasc Res 2009; 81: 381-388.
83. Cheung AT, Perez RV, Chen PC: Improvements in diabetic microangiopathy after successful simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplantation: a computer-assisted intravital microscopy study on the conjunctival microcirculation. Transplantation 1999; 68: 927-932. (Pubitemid 29489314)
84. Cheung AT, Ramanujam S, Greer DA, Kumagai LF, Aoki TT: Microvascular abnormalities in the bulbar conjunctiva of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Endocr Pract 2001; 7: 358-363. (Pubitemid 32904293)
85. Eviatar A, Davis E: Systemic microcirculatory changes in otosclerotic patients (a biomicroscopic study). J Laryngol Otol 1968; 82: 795-801.
86. Witt N, Wong TY, Hughes AD, Chaturvedi N, Klein BE, Evans R, McNamara M, Thom SA, Klein R: Abnormalities of retinal microvascular structure and risk of mortality from ischemic heart disease and stroke. Hypertension 2006; 47: 975-981. (Pubitemid 44297571)
87. Kylstra JA, Wierzbicki T, Wolbarsht ML, Landers MB 3rd, Stefansson E: The relationship between retinal vessel tortuosity, diameter, and transmural pressure. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1986; 224: 477-480. (Pubitemid 16033885)
88. Kwa VI, van der Sande JJ, Stam J, Tijmes N, Vrooland JL: Retinal arterial changes correlate with cerebral small-vessel disease. Neurology 2002; 59: 1536-1540. (Pubitemid 35387058)
89. Hutchins PM, Marshburn TH, Maultsby SJ, Lynch CD, Smith TL, Dusseau JW: Longterm microvascular response to hydralazine in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension 1988; 12: 74-79.
90. Miodonski AJ, Litwin JA: Microvascular architecture of the human urinary bladder wall: a corrosion casting study. Anat Rec 1999; 254: 375-381. (Pubitemid 29122250)
91. Bhutto IA, Amemiya T: Vascular changes in retinas of spontaneously hypertensive rats demonstrated by corrosion casts. Ophthalmic Res 1997; 29: 12-23. (Pubitemid 27153819)
92. Pletcher BA, Fox JE, Boxer RA, Singh S, Blumenthal D, Cohen T, Brunson S, Tafreshi P, Kahn E: Four sibs with arterial tortuosity: description and review of the literature. Am J Med Genet 1996; 66: 121-128.
93. Wessels MW, Catsman-Berrevoets CE, Mancini GM, Breuning MH, Hoogeboom JJ, Stroink H, Frohn-Mulder I, Coucke PJ, Paepe AD, Niermeijer MF, Willems PJ: Three new families with arterial tortuosity syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2004; 131: 134-143. (Pubitemid 39578344)
94. Nakamura T, Lozano PR, Ikeda Y, Iwanaga Y, Hinek A, Minamisawa S, Cheng CF, Kobuke K, Dalton N, Takada Y, Tashiro K, Ross J Jr, Honjo T, Chien KR: Fibulin-5/DANCE is essential for elastogenesis in vivo. Nature 2002; 415: 171-175. (Pubitemid 34059518)
95. Wagenseil JE, Ciliberto CH, Knutsen RH, Levy MA, Kovacs A, Mecham RP: Reduced vessel elasticity alters cardiovascular structure and function in newborn mice. Circ Res 2009; 104: 1217-1224.
96. Coucke PJ, Willaert A, Wessels MW, Callewaert B, Zoppi N, De Backer J, Fox JE, Mancini GM, Kambouris M, Gardella R, Facchetti F, Willems PJ, Forsyth R, Dietz HC, Barlati S, Colombi M, Loeys B, De Paepe A: Mutations in the facilitative glucose transporter GLUT10 alter angiogenesis and cause arterial tortuosity syndrome. Nat Genet 2006; 38: 452-457.
97. Yanagisawa H, Davis EC, Starcher BC, Ouchi T, Yanagisawa M, Richardson JA, Olson EN: Fibulin-5 is an elastin-binding protein essential for elastic fibre development in vivo. Nature 2002; 415: 168-171. (Pubitemid 34059517)
98. Dobrin PB, Schwarcz TH, Baker WH: Mechanisms of arterial and aneurysmal tortuosity. Surgery 1988; 104: 568-571.
99. Kono AK, Higashi M, Morisaki H, Morisaki T, Tsutsumi Y, Akutsu K, Naito H, Sugimura K: High prevalence of vertebral artery tortuosity of Loeys-Dietz syndrome in comparison with Marfan syndrome. Jpn J Radiol 2010; 28: 273-277.
100. Loeys BL, Schwarze U, Holm T, Callewaert BL, Thomas GH, Pannu H, De Backer JF, Oswald GL, Symoens S, Manouvrier S, Roberts AE, Faravelli F, Greco MA, Pyeritz RE, Milewicz DM, Coucke PJ, Cameron DE, Braverman AC, Byers PH, De Paepe AM, Dietz HC: Aneurysm syndromes caused by mutations in the TGF-beta receptor. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 788-798. (Pubitemid 44285584)
101. Tran-Fadulu V, Pannu H, Kim DH, Vick GW 3rd, Lonsford CM, Lafont AL, Boccalandro C, Smart S, Peterson KL, Hain JZ, Willing MC, Coselli JS, LeMaire SA, Ahn C, Byers PH, Milewicz DM: Analysis of multigenerational families with thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissections due to TGFBR1 or TGFBR2 mutations. J Med Genet 2009; 46: 607-613.
102. Loeys B, De Paepe A: New insights in the pathogenesis of aortic aneurysms. Verh K Acad Geneeskd Belg 2008; 70: 69-84.
103. Northcutt A, Han HC: Finite element analysis of buckling of arteries with aneurysms. ASME Summer Bioengineering Conference, Lake Tahoe, 2009.
104. Campbell B: Varicose veins and their management. BMJ 2006; 333: 287-292. (Pubitemid 44406691)
105. Jones RH, Carek PJ: Management of varicose veins. Am Fam Physician 2008; 78: 1289-1294.
106. Canonico S, Gallo C, Paolisso G, Pacifico F, Signoriello G, Sciaudone G, Ferrara N, Piegari V, Varricchio M, Rengo F: Prevalence of varicose veins in an Italian elderly population. Angiology 1998; 49: 129-135. (Pubitemid 28113357)
107. Komsuoglu B, Goldeli O, Kulan K, Cetinarslan B, Komsuoglu SS: Prevalence and risk factors of varicose veins in an elderly population. Gerontology 1994; 40: 25-31. (Pubitemid 24108090)
108. Meisel E, Pfeiffer D, Engelmann L, Tebbenjohanns J, Schubert B, Hahn S, Fleck E, Butter C: Investigation of coronary venous anatomy by retrograde venography in patients with malignant ventricular tachycardia. Circulation 2001; 104: 442-447. (Pubitemid 32678275)
109. Vattoth S, Purkayastha S, Jayadevan ER, Gupta AK: Bilateral cerebral venous angioma associated with varices: a case report and review of the literature. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2005; 26: 2320-2322.
110. Schneider PR, Pribaz J, Russell RC: Microvenous graft length determination for arterial repair. Ann Plast Surg 1986; 17: 292-298. (Pubitemid 16007340)
111. Liu Q, Mirc D, Fu BM: Mechanical mechanisms of thrombosis in intact bent microvessels of rat mesentery. J Biomech 2008; 41: 2726-2734.
112. Dean LS, George CJ, Roubin GS, Kennard ED, Holmes DR Jr, King SB 3rd, Vlietstra RE, Moses JW, Kereiakes D, Carrozza JP Jr, Ellis SG, Margolis JR, Detre KM: Bailout and corrective use of gianturco-roubin flex stents after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty: operator reports and angiographic core laboratory verification from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/New Approaches to Coronary Intervention Registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 29: 934-940. (Pubitemid 27149564)
113. Illuminati G, Calio FG, Papaspyropoulos V, Montesano G, D'Urso A: Revascularization of the internal carotid artery for isolated, stenotic, and symptomatic kinking. Arch Surg 2003; 138: 192-197. (Pubitemid 36216286)
114. Szekely G, Csecsei GI: Anteposition of the internal carotid artery for surgical treatment of kinking. Surg Neurol 2001; 56: 124-126. (Pubitemid 32907232)
115. Bergan JJ, Kumins NH, Owens EL, Sparks SR: Surgical and endovascular treatment of lower extremity venous insufficiency. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2002; 13: 563-568. (Pubitemid 34625714)
116. Fearn SJ, McCollum CN: Shortening and reimplantation for tortuous internal carotid arteries. J Vasc Surg 1998; 27: 936-939. (Pubitemid 28394439)
117. Ballotta E, Thiene G, Baracchini C, Ermani M, Militello C, Da Giau G, Barbon B, Angelini A: Surgical versus medical treatment for isolated internal carotid artery elongation with coiling or kinking in symptomatic patients: a prospective randomized clinical study. J Vasc Surg 2005; 42: 838-846;(discussion)846. (Pubitemid 41571943)
118. Nichols WW, O'Rourke MF: McDonald's Blood Flow in the Arteries. Theoretical, Experimental and Clinical Principles, ed 4. London, Arnold, 1998, chapt 16.
119. Han HC, Fung YC: Longitudinal strain of canine and porcine aortas. J Biomech 1995; 28: 637-641.
120. Learoyd BM, Taylor MG: Alterations with age in the viscoelastic properties of human arterial walls. Circ Res 1966; 18: 278-292.
121. Sugawara J, Hayashi K, Yokoi T, Tanaka H: Age-associated elongation of the ascending aorta in adults. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2008; 1: 739-748.
122. Jackson ZS, Dajnowiec D, Gotlieb AI, Langille BL: Partial off-loading of longitudinal tension induces arterial tortuosity. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25: 957-962. (Pubitemid 40627839)
123. Dobrin PB, Canfield TR: Elastase, collagenase, and the biaxial elastic properties of dog carotid artery. Am J Physiol 1984; 247:H124-131. (Pubitemid 14092205)
124. Carta L, Wagenseil JE, Knutsen RH, Mariko B, Faury G, Davis EC, Starcher B, Mecham RP, Ramirez F: Discrete contributions of elastic fiber components to arterial development and mechanical compliance. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2009; 29: 2083-2089.
125. Hamza LH, Dang Q, Lu X, Mian A, Molloi S, Kassab GS: Effect of passive myocardium on the compliance of porcine coronary arteries. Am J Physiol 2003; 285:H653-660. (Pubitemid 36885897)
126. Yupu L, Yaotian H, Li Z, Rensheng L, Kaijun S, Ping M, Xiaochao C: Management of major arterial injuries of limbs: a study of 166 cases. Cardiovasc Surg 1993; 1: 486-488.
127. Lee AY: Determining the Critical Buckling of Blood Vessels through Modeling and in vitro Experiments; PhD, Biomedical Engineering San Antonio, University of Texas at San Antonio, 2011.
128. Kaplan AD, Jaffa AJ, Timor IE, Elad D: Hemodynamic analysis of arterial blood flow in the coiled umbilical cord. Reprod Sci 2010; 17: 258-268.
129. Wood NB, Zhao SZ, Zambanini A, Jackson M, Gedroyc W, Thom SA, Hughes AD, Xu XY: Curvature and tortuosity of the superficial femoral artery: a possible risk factor for peripheral arterial disease. J Appl Physiol 2006; 101: 1412-1418.
130. Qiao AK, Guo XL, Wu SG, Zeng YJ, Xu XH: Numerical study of nonlinear pulsatile flow in S-shaped curved arteries. Med Eng Phys 2004; 26: 545-552. (Pubitemid 38951025)
131. Datir P, Lee AY, Lamm SD, Han HC: Effects of geometric variations on the buckling of arteries. Int J Appl Mech 2011; 3: 385-406.
132. Klaritsch P, Haeusler M, Karpf E, Schlembach D, Lang U: Spontaneous intrauterine umbilical artery thrombosis leading to severe fetal growth restriction. Placenta 2008; 29: 374-377.
133. Sato Y, Benirschke K: Umbilical arterial thrombosis with vascular wall necrosis: clinicopathologic findings of 11 cases. Placenta 2006; 27: 715-718.
134. Nerem RM: Role of mechanics in vascular tissue engineering. Biorheology 2003; 40: 281-287.
135. Northcutt A, Datir P, Han HC: Computational simulations of buckling of oval and tapered arteries; in Chien S, Schmid-Schönbein G, Tong P, Woo S (eds): Tributes to Yuan-Cheng Fung on His 90th Birthday. Hackensack, World Scientific, 2009.
136. Langille BL: Arterial remodeling: relation to hemodynamics. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1996; 74: 834-841. (Pubitemid 26426573)
137. Lehoux S, Tedgui A: Cellular mechanics and gene expression in blood vessels. J Biomech 2003; 36: 631-643. (Pubitemid 36407615)
138. Han HC: Blood vessel buckling within soft surrounding tissue generates tortuosity. J Biomech 2009; 42: 2797-2801.
139. Han HC: The theoretical foundation for artery buckling under internal pressure. J Biomech Eng 2009; 131: 124501.
140. Fung YC: Biomechanics: Circulation, ed 2. New York, Springer, 1997, chapter 4.
141. Drzewiecki G, Field S, Moubarak I, Li JK: Vessel growth and collapsible pressure-area relationship. Am J Physiol 1997; 273:H2030-H2043.
142. Downing JM, Ku DN: Effects of frictional losses and pulsatile flow on the collapse of stenotic arteries. J Biomech Eng 1997; 119: 317-324. (Pubitemid 27355777)
143. Han HC: Determination of the critical buckling pressure of blood vessels using the energy approach. Ann Biomed Eng 2011; 39: 1032-1040.
144. Brossollet LJ, Vito RP: An alternate formulation of blood vessel mechanics and the meaning of the in vivo property. J Biomech 1995; 28: 679-687.
145. Stelson KA, Blackshear PL Jr, Wirtschafter JD: On the tortuosity of the veins of the retina. Microvasc Res 1983; 26: 126-128. (Pubitemid 13026427)
146. Fierro CA, Johnson K, Han HC: The critical buckling pressure of arteries. ASME Summer Bioengineering Conference (SBC2007), Keystone, 2007.
147. Lee A, Han HC: A thin-walled nonlinear model for vein buckling. Cardiovasc Eng Tech 2010; 1: 282-289.
148. Lee AY, Han B, Lamm SD, Fierro CA, Han HC: Effects of elastin degradation and surrounding matrix support on artery stability. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2012; 320: H873-H884.
149. Gere JM: Mechanics of Materials, ed 6. Belmont, Thomson, 2004.
150. Beris AE, Soucacos PN, Touliatos AS: Experimental evaluation of the length of microvenous grafts under normal tension. Microsurgery 1992; 13: 195-199.
151. Han HC: The mechanical buckling of curved arteries. Mol Cell Biomech 2009; 6: 93-100.
152. Rachev A: A theoretical study of mechanical stability of arteries. J Biomech Eng 2009; 131: 051006.
153. Rachev A, Gleason R: Dynamic instability of arteries. Effects of perivascular tissue. ASME Summer Bioengineering Conference, Lake Tahoe, 2009.
154. Liu Q, Han HC: Mechanical buckling of artery under pulsatile flow. ASME Summer Bioengineering Conference, Farmington, 2011.
155. Ku DN: Blood flow in arteries. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 1997; 29: 399-434.
156. Back LH, Back MR, Kwack EY, Crawford DW: Flow measurements in a human femoral artery model with reverse lumen curvature. J Biomech Eng 1988; 110: 300-309. (Pubitemid 19006709)
157. Back LH, Liem TK, Kwack EY, Crawford DW: Flow measurements in a highly curved atherosclerotic coronary artery cast of man. J Biomech Eng 1992; 114: 232-240.
158. Krams R, Wentzel JJ, Oomen JA, Vinke R, Schuurbiers JC, de Feyter PJ, Serruys PW, Slager CJ: Evaluation of endothelial shear stress and 3D geometry as factors determining the development of atherosclerosis and remodeling in human coronary arteries in vivo. Combining 3D reconstruction from angiography and IVUS (ANGUS) with computational fluid dynamics. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17: 2061-2065.
159. Stein PD, Hamid MS, Shivkumar K, Davis TP, Khaja F, Henry JW: Effects of cyclic flexion of coronary arteries on progression of atherosclerosis. Am J Cardiol 1994; 73: 431-437. (Pubitemid 24096203)
160. Li ZY, Howarth SP, Tang T, Graves MJ, J UK-I, Trivedi RA, Kirkpatrick PJ, Gillard JH: Structural analysis and magnetic resonance imaging predict plaque vulnerability: a study comparing symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals. J Vasc Surg 2007; 45: 768-775. (Pubitemid 46483961)
161. Huang H, Virmani R, Younis H, Burke AP, Kamm RD, Lee RT: The impact of calcification on the biomechanical stability of atherosclerotic plaques. Circulation 2001; 103: 1051-1056. (Pubitemid 32200176)
162. Cheng GC, Loree HM, Kamm RD, Fishbein MC, Lee RT: Distribution of circumferential stress in ruptured and stable atherosclerotic lesions. A structural analysis with histopathological correlation. Circulation 1993; 87: 1179-1187. (Pubitemid 23110390)
163. Van Epps JS, Chew DW, Vorp DA: Effects of cyclic flexure on endothelial permeability and apoptosis in arterial segments perfused ex vivo. J Biomech Eng 2009; 131: 101005.
164. Vorp DA, Peters DG, Webster MW: Gene expression is altered in perfused arterial segments exposed to cyclic flexure ex vivo. Ann Biomed Eng 1999; 27: 366-371. (Pubitemid 129647577)
165. Xiao Y, Zhao Y, Hayman D, Han HC: Arterial buckling promotes NF-B activation associated with cell proliferation in porcine carotid arteries perfused ex vivo. Biomedical Engineering Society Annual Conference, Hartford, Conn, 2011.
166. Avolio A, Jones D, Tafazzoli-Shadpour M: Quantification of alterations in structure and function of elastin in the arterial media. Hypertension 1998; 32: 170-175. (Pubitemid 28324144)
167. Choi G, Cheng CP, Wilson NM, Taylor CA: Methods for quantifying three-dimensional deformation of arteries due to pulsatile and nonpulsatile forces: implications for the design of stents and stent grafts. Ann Biomed Eng 2009; 37: 14-33.
168. Okada Y, Shima T, Nishida M, Yamane K, Nakagawa I, Hori T: Intraoperative hemodynamic measurements of the vertebral artery and common carotid artery. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2004; 44: 509-515. (Pubitemid 39469615)
169. Ergul A, Elgebaly MM, Middlemore ML, Li W, Elewa H, Switzer JA, Hall C, Kozak A, Fagan SC: Increased hemorrhagic transformation and altered infarct size and localization after experimental stroke in a rat model type 2 diabetes. BMC Neurol 2007; 7: 33.