The Lexical Stroop Sort (LSS) picture-word task: A computerized task for assessing the relationship between language and executive functioning in school-aged children

Behavior Research Methods

Volumn 44, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 270-286

  Wilbourn, Makeba Parramore ^a   Kurtz, Laura E ^a   Kalia, Vrinda ^b  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Worchester State University   (United States)

Author keywords

Executive functions; Language; Phonological awareness; Phonological processing; Receptive vocabulary; Working memory

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CHILD; COMPREHENSION; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; HUMAN; LANGUAGE; LINGUISTICS; MALE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PHOTOSTIMULATION; PRESCHOOL CHILD; REPRODUCIBILITY; SHORT TERM MEMORY;

CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COMPREHENSION; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; HUMANS; LANGUAGE; MALE; MEMORY, SHORT-TERM; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PHOTIC STIMULATION; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; VOCABULARY;

EID: 84856930664     PISSN: 1554351X     EISSN: 15543528     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3758/s13428-011-0142-4     Document Type: Article

References (55)

1. Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Willis, C., & Adams, A.-M. (2004). A structural analysis of working memory and related cognitive skills in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 85-106. doi: 10. 1016/j. jecp. 2003. 10. 002.
2. Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8, 71-82. doi: 10. 1076/chin. 8. 2. 71. 8724.
3. Baddeley, A. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press.
4. Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49A, 5-28. doi: 10. 1080/027249896392784.
5. Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory and language: An overview. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36, 189-208. doi: 10. 1016/S0021-9924(03)00019-4.
6. Baddeley, A., Gathercole, S., & Papagno, C. (1998). The phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychological Review, 105, 158-173. doi: 10. 1037/0033-295X. 105. 1. 158.
7. Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47-89). New York: Academic Press.
8. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 51. 6. 1173.
9. Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy and cognition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
10. Blair, C. (2002). School readiness. Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children's functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57, 111-127.
11. Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78, 647-663.
12. Blair, C., Zelazo, P. D., & Greenberg, M. T. (2005). The measurement of executive function in early childhood. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 561-571.
13. Carlson, S. M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 595-616. doi: 10. 1207/s15326942dn2802_3.
14. Carlson, S. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2008). Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children. Developmental Science, 11, 282-298. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-7687. 2008. 00675. x.
15. Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind. Child Development, 72, 1032-1053. doi: 10. 1111/1467-8624. 00333.
16. Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Breton, C. (2002). How specific is the relation between executive function and theory of mind? Contributions of inhibitory control and working memory. Infant and Child Development, 11, 73-92. doi: 10. 1002/icd. 298.
17. Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Hix, H. R. (1998). The role of inhibitory processes in young children's difficulties with deception and false belief. Child Development, 69, 672-691. doi: 10. 2307/1132197.
18. Denckla, M. B. (1996). A theory and model of executive function: A neuropsychological perspective. In G. R. Lyon & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Attention, memory and executive function (pp. 263-278). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
19. Dickinson, D. K., McCabe, A., Anastasopoulos, L., Peisner-Feinberg, E. S., & Poe, M. D. (2003). The comprehensive language approach to early literacy: The interrelationships among vocabulary, phonological sensitivity, and print knowledge among preschool-aged children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 465-481. doi: 10. 1037/0022-0663. 95. 3. 465.
20. Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, D. M. (2007). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test: Manual (4th ed.). Minneapolis, MN: Pearson Assessment.
21. Duyck, W., Szmalec, A., Kemps, E., & Vandierendonck, A. (2003). Verbal working memory is involved in associative word learning unless visual codes are available. Journal of Memory and Language, 48, 527-541. doi: 10. 1016/S0749-596X(02)00533-8.
22. Espy, K. A., Bull, R., Martin, J., & Stroup, W. (2006). Measuring the development of executive control with the Shape School. Psychological Assessment, 18, 373-381. doi: 10. 1037/1040-3590. 18. 4. 373.
23. Fenson, L., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S., Thal, D., Bates, E., Pathick, S., et al. (1993). MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories: Gestures and words. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
24. Frye, D., Zelazo, P. D., & Burack, J. A. (1998). Cognitive complexity and control: I. Theory of mind in typical and atypical development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 116-121. doi: 10. 1111/1467-8721. ep10774754.
25. Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Knight, C., & Stegmann, Z. (2004). Working memory skills and educational attainment: Evidence from national curriculum assessments at 7 and 14 years of age. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 1-16. doi: 10. 1002/acp. 934.
26. Gupta, P., & MacWhinney, B. (1997). Vocabulary acquisition and verbal short-term memory: Computational and neural bases. Brain and Language, 59, 267-333. doi: 10. 1006/brln. 1997. 1819.
27. Hecht, S. A., Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (2001). The relations between phonological processing abilities and emerging individual differences in mathematical computation skills: A longitudinal study from second to fifth grades. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 79, 192-227. doi: 10. 1006/jecp. 2000. 2586.
28. Hoyle, R. H., & Kenny, D. A. (1999). Sample size, reliability, and tests of statistical mediation. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Statistical strategies for small sample research (pp. 195-222). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
29. Homer, B. D., & Nelson, K. (2009). Naming facilitates children's understanding of scale models: Language and the development of symbolic understanding. Journal of Cognition and Development, 10, 115-134.
30. Honomichl, R. D., & Chen, Z. (2011). Relations as rules: The role of attention in the Dimensional Change Card Sort task. Developmental Psychology, 47, 50-60.
31. Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2007). Executive function and theory of mind: Predictive relations from ages 2 to 4. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1447-1459.
32. Jacques, S., & Zelazo, P. D. (2001). The Flexible Item Selection Task (FIST): A measure of executive function in preschoolers. Developmental Neuropsychology, 20, 573-591. doi: 10. 1207/875656401753549807.
33. Jongejan, W., Verhoeven, L., & Siegel, L. S. (2007). Predictors of reading and spelling abilities in first- and second-language learners. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 835-851. doi: 10. 1037/0022-0663. 99. 4. 835.
34. Jose, P. E. (2003). MedGraph-I: A programme to graphically depict mediation among three variables: The Internet version, version 2. 0. Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand. Retrieved 13 June, 2011, from www. victoria. ac. nz/staff/paul-jose-files/medgraph/medgraph. php.
35. Kirkham, N. Z., Cruess, L., & Diamond, A. (2003). Helping children apply their knowledge to their behavior on a dimension-switching task. Developmental Science, 6, 449-467. doi: 10. 1111/1467-7687. 00300.
36. Lan, X., Legare, C. H., Ponitz, C. C., Li, S., & Morrison, F. J. (2011). Investigating the links between subcomponents of executive function and academic achievement: A cross-cultural analysis of Chinese and American preschoolers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 677-692.
37. Luo, L., Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2010). Effect of language proficiency and executive control on verbal fluency performance in bilinguals. Cognition, 114, 29-41. doi: 10. 1016/j. cognition. 2009. 08. 014.
38. MacKinnon, D. P., Fairchild, A. J., & Fritz, M. S. (2007). Mediation analysis. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 593-614. doi: 10. 1146/annurev. psych. 58. 110405. 085542.
39. Marcovitch, S., & Zelazo, P. D. (2009). A hierarchical competing systems model of the emergence and early development of executive function. Developmental Science, 12, 1-18. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-7687. 2008. 00754. x.
40. McBride-Chang, C., Zhou, Y., Cho, J.-R., Aram, D., Levin, I., & Tolchinsky, L. (2011). Visual spatial skill: A consequence of learning to read? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109, 256-262. doi: 10. 1016/j. jecp. 2010. 12. 003.
41. McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007a). Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers' literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43, 947-959.
42. McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Wanless, S. B., & Murray, A. (2007b). Executive function, self-regulation, and social-emotional competence: Links to school readiness. In O. N. Saracho & B. Spodek (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives on research in social learning in early childhood education (pp. 83-107). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
43. Miller, S. E., & Marcovitch, S. (2011). Toddlers benefit from labeling on an executive function search task. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 580-592. doi: 10. 1016/j. jecp. 2010. 10. 008.
44. Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167-202. doi: 10. 1146/annurev. neuro. 24. 1. 167.
45. Müller, U., Zelazo, P. D., Lurye, L. E., & Liebermann, D. P. (2008). The effect of labeling on preschool children's performance in the Dimensional Change Card Sort Task. Cognitive Development, 23, 395-408. doi: 10. 1016/j. cogdev. 2008. 06. 001.
46. Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2000). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 427-441. doi: 10. 1017/S0954579400003096.
47. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891. doi: 10. 3758/BRM. 40. 3. 879.
48. Singer, B. D., & Bashir, A. S. (1999). What are executive functions and self-regulation and what do they have to do with language-learning disorders? Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 30, 265-273.
49. Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language (Rev. ed.; A. Kozulin, Ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Original work published 1934).
50. Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1999). Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP). San Antonio, TX: Pearson Education.
51. Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., Hecht, S. A., Barker, T. A., Burgess, S. R., et al. (1997). Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: A 5-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 33, 468-479. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 33. 3. 468.
52. Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., Wirth, R. J., & Greenberg, M. (2010). The measurement of executive function at age 3 years: Psychometric properties and criterion validity of a new battery of tasks. Psychological Assessment, 22, 306-317. doi: 10. 1037/a0018708.
53. Zelazo, P. D. (2006). The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1, 297-301. doi: 10. 1038/nprot. 2006. 46.
54. Zelazo, P. D., Craik, F. I. M., & Booth, L. (2004). Executive function across the life span. Acta Psychologica, 115, 167-183.
55. Zelazo, P. D., Müller, U., Frye, D., & Marcovitch, S. (2003). The development of executive function in early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 68(3, Serial No. 274), 1-119.