Impact of grassland burning on soil organic matter as revealed by a synchrotron- and pyrolysis-mass spectrometry-based multi-methodological approach

Organic Geochemistry

Volumn 44, Issue , 2012, Pages 8-20

  Kiersch, Kristian ^a   Kruse, Jens ^a   Eckhardt, Kai Uwe ^a   Fendt, Alois ^a   Streibel, Thorsten ^a   Zimmermann, Ralf ^a   Broll, Gabriele ^b   Leinweber, Peter ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ROSTOCK   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OSNABRÜCK   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AROMATIC SYSTEM; GERMANY; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT COMPOUNDS; N CONTENT; N-HETEROCYCLIC; NATURAL SUCCESSION; PY-GC-MS; PYROLYSIS-GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY-MASS SPECTROMETRIES; SAMPLING SITE; SOIL ORGANIC MATTERS; SOIL SAMPLE; STRUCTURAL COMPOSITION; SUBSTITUTED AROMATIC; TOTAL ORGANIC C; XANES SPECTRA;

AROMATIC COMPOUNDS; AROMATIZATION; CYANIDES; GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY; IONIZATION; MASS SPECTROMETRY; PYROLYSIS; X RAY ABSORPTION NEAR EDGE STRUCTURE SPECTROSCOPY;

VEGETATION;

BIOMASS BURNING; CARBON; GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY; GRASSLAND; LIGNIN; MASS SPECTROMETRY; MULCHING; NITROGEN; PEPTIDE; PYROLYSIS; SOIL ORGANIC MATTER; XANES SPECTROSCOPY;

GERMANY;

EID: 84856651620     PISSN: 01466380     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2011.12.002     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. Abe T., Watanabe A. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of nitrogen functional groups in soil humic acids. Soil Science 2004, 169:35-43.
2. Almendros G., González-Vila F.J., Martin F. Fire-induced transformations of soil organic matter from an oak forest: an experimental approach to the effects of fire on humic substances. Soil Science 1990, 149:158-168.
3. Almendros G., Guadalix M.E., González-Vila F.J., Martin F. Preservation of aliphatic macromolecules in soil humins. Organic Geochemistry 1996, 24:651-659.
4. 15N-NMR spectroscopy. Organic Geochemistry 2003, 34:1559-1568.
5. Aust M.-O., Thiele-Bruhn S., Eckhardt K.-U., Leinweber P. Composition of organic matter in particle size fractionated pig slurry. Bioresource Technology 2009, 100:5736-5743.
6. Baldock J.A., Smernik R.J. Chemical composition and bioavailability of thermally altered Pinus resinosa (red pine) wood. Organic Geochemistry 2002, 33:1093-1109.
7. Bärring H., Bucheli T.D., Broman D., Gustafsson Ö. Soot-water distribution coefficients for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polybrominated diphenylethers determined with the soot cosolvency-column method. Chemosphere 2002, 39:515-523.
8. Bremner J.M. The nitrogenous constituents of soil organic matter and their role in soil fertility. Pontificiae Academiae Scientiarum Scripta Varia 1967, 32:143-193.
9. Brodowski S., Amelung W., Haumaier L., Abetz C., Zech W. Morphological and chemical properties of black carbon in physical soil fractions as revealed by scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Geoderma 2005, 128:116-129.
10. Bruun S., Jensen E.S., Jensen L.S. Microbial mineralization and assimilation of black carbon: dependency on degree of thermal alteration. Organic Geochemistry 2008, 39:839-845.
11. Buurman P., Peterse F., Almendros Martin G. Soil organic matter chemistry in allophanic soils: a pyrolysis-GC/MS study of a Costa Rican Andosol catena. European Journal of Soil Science 2007, 58:1330-1347.
12. Cheng C.-H., Lehmann J., Thies J.A., Burton S.D., Engelhard M.H. Oxidation of black carbon through biotic and abiotic processes. Organic Geochemistry 2006, 37:1477-1488.
13. Czimczik C.I., Masiello C.A. Controls on black carbon storage in soils. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2007, 21:GB3005. 10.1029/2006GB002798.
14. De la Rosa J.M., Knicker H., López-Capel E., Manning D.A.C., González-Pérez J.A., González-Vila F.J. Direct detection of black carbon in soils by Py-GC/MS, Carbon-13 NMR Spectroscopy and Thermogravimetric Techniques. Soil Science Society of America Journal 2008, 72:258-267.
15. DeBano L.F. The role of fire and soil heating on water repellency in wildland environments: a review. Journal of Hydrology 2000, 231-232:195-206.
16. del Río J.C., Martin F., González-Vila F.J. Thermally assisted hydrolysis and alkylation as a novel pyrolytic approach for the structural characterization of natural biopolymers and geomacromolecules. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 1996, 15:70-79.
17. Evans R.J., Milne T.A. Molecular characterization of the pyrolysis of biomass. 2. Applications. Energy and Fuels 1987, 4:311-319.
18. Forbes M.S., Raison R.J., Skjemstad J.O. Formation, transformation and transport of black carbon (charcoal) in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Science of the Total Environment 2006, 370:190-206.
19. Gillespie A.W., Walley F.L., Farrell R.E., Regier T.Z., Blyth R.I.R. Calibration method at the N K-edge using interstitial nitrogen gas in solid-state nitrogen-containing inorganic compounds. Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 2008, 15:532-534.
20. Gillespie A.W., Walley F.L., Farrell R.E., Leinweber P., Schlichting A., Eckhardt K.-U., Regier T.Z., Blyth R.I.R. Profiling rhizosphere chemistry: evidence from carbon and nitrogen K-Edge XANES and Pyrolysis-FIMS. Soil Science of America Journal 2009, 73:2002-2012.
21. Gillespie A.W., Farrell R.E., Walley F.L., Ross A.R.S., Leinweber P., Eckhardt K.-U., Regier T.Z., Blyth R.I.R. Glomalin-related soil protein contains non-mycorrhizal-related heat-stable proteins, lipids and humic materials. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 2011, 43:766-777.
22. Glaser B., Knorr K.-H. Isotopic evidence for condensed aromatics from non-pyrogenic sources in soils - implications for current methods for quantifying soil black carbon. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 2008, 22:935-942.
23. Goldberg E.D. Black Carbon in the Environment 1985, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
24. González-Pérez J., Arbelo C.D., González-Vila F.J., Rodríguez A.R., Almendros G., Armas C.M., Polvillo O. Molecular features of organic matter in diagnostic horizons from andosols as seen by analytical pyrolysis. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 2007, 80:369-382.
25. Griffin J.J., Goldberg E.D. Impact of fossil fuel combustion on sediments of Lake Michigan: a reprise. Environmental Science and Technology 1983, 17:244-245.
26. Gustafsson Ö., Gschwend P.M. Soot as a strong partition medium for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in aquatic systems. Molecular Markers in Environmental Geochemistry 1997, 365-381. American Chemical Society, Washington DC. R.P. Eganhouse (Ed.).
27. Hammes K., Schmidt M.W.I., Smernik R.J., Currie L.E., Ball W.P., Nguyen T.H., Louchouarn P., Houel S., Gustafsson Ö., Elmquist M., Cornelissen G., Skjemstad J.O., Masiello C.A., Song J., Peng P., Mitra S., Dunn J.C., Hatcher P.G., Hockaday W.C., Smith D.M., Hartkopf-Fröder C., Böhmer A., Lüer B., Huebert B.J., Amelung W., Brodowski S., Huang L., Zhang W., Gschwend P.M., Xanat Flores-Cervantes D., Largeau C., Rouzaud J.-N., Rumpel C., Guggenberger G., Kaiser K., Rodionov A., González-Vila F.J., González-Pérez J.A., De la Rosa J.M., Manning D.A.C., López-Capél E., Ding L. Comparison of quantification methods to measure fire-derived (black/elemental) carbon in soils and sediments using reference materials from soil, water, sediment and the atmosphere. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2007, 21:GB3016. 10.1029/2006GB002914.
28. Hauk A., Sklorz M., Bergmann G., Hutzinger O. Analysis and toxicity testing of combustion gases - I. A new sampling unit for collection of combustion products. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 1994, 28:1-12.
29. Hedges J.I., Eglinton G., Hatcher P.G., Kirchman D.L., Arnosti C., Derenne S., Evershed R.P., Kögel-Knabner I., de Leeuw J.W., Littke R., Michaelis W., Rullkötter J. The molecularly-uncharacterized component of nonliving organic matter in natural environments. Organic Geochemistry 2000, 31:945-958.
30. Hempfling R., Schulten H.-R. Characterization and dynamics of organic compounds in forest humus studied by pyrolysis-gas chromatography/electron impact mass spectrometry and pyrolysis-(high-resolution) field ionization mass spectrometry. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 1988, 13:319-325.
31. Hempfling R., Schulten H.-R. Chemical characterization of the organic matter in forest soils by Curie point pyrolysis-GC/MS and pyrolysis-field ionization mass spectrometry. Organic Geochemistry 1990, 15:131-145.
32. Hempfling R., Schulten H.-R. Pyrolysis-(gas chromatography/) mass spectrometry of agricultural soils and their humic fractions. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde 1991, 154:425-430.
33. Hempfling R., Zech W., Schulten H.-R. Chemical composition of the organic matter in forest soils: 2. Moder Profile. Soil Science 1988, 146:262-276.
34. Hockaday W.C., Grannas A.M., Kim S., Hatcher P.G. Direct molecular evidence for the degradation and mobility of black carbon in soils from ultrahigh-resolution mass spectral analysis of dissolved organic matter from a fire-impacted forest soil. Organic Geochemistry 2006, 37:501-510.
35. Hopkins M.S., Graham A.W., Hewett R., Ash J., Head J. Evidence of late Pleistocene fires and eucalypt forest from a north Queensland humid tropical rainforest site. Australian Journal of Ecology 1990, 15:345-357.
36. IUSS Working Group WRB, 2007. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2006, first update 2007. World Soil Resources Reports No. 103. FAO, Rome.
37. Jandl G., Schulten H.-R., Leinweber P. Quantification of long-chain fatty acids in dissolved organic matter and soils. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 2002, 165:133-139.
38. Jandl G., Leinweber P., Schulten H.-R., Eusterhues K. The concentration of fatty acids in organo-mineral particle-size fractions of a chernozem. European Journal of Soil Science 2004, 55:459-469.
39. Jandl G., Leinweber P., Schulten H.-R., Ekschmitt K. Contribution of primary organic matter to the fatty acid pool in agricultural soils. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 2005, 37:1033-1041.
40. Kaal J., Martínez Cortizas A., Nierop K.G.J. Characterisation of aged charcoal using a coil probe pyrolysis-GC/MS method optimised for black carbon. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 2009, 85:408-416.
41. 15NMR study of nitrogen forms in carbonaceous solids. Energy & Fuels 2002, 16:1507-1515.
42. Kim J.S., Ree M., Lee S.W., Oh W., Baek S., Lee B., Shin T.J., Kim K.J., Kim B., Luning J. NEXAFS spectroscopy study of the surface properties of zinc glutarate and its reactivity with carbon dioxide and propylene oxide. Journal of Catalysis 2003, 218:386-395.
43. Knicker H. Black Carbon and thermally altered (pyrogenic organic matter): chemical characteristics and the role in the environment. Biophysico-Chemical Processes Involving Natural Nonliving Organic Matter in Environmental Systems 2009, 273-303. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. N. Senesi, B. Xing, P.M. Huang (Eds.).
44. Knicker H., Fründ R., Lüdemann H.D. The chemical nature of nitrogen in native soil organic matter. Naturwissenschaften 1993, 80:219-221.
45. Knicker H., Hilscher A., González-Vila F.J., Almendros G. A new conceptual model for the structural properties of char produced during vegetation fires. Organic Geochemistry 2008, 39:935-939.
46. Kramer R.W., Kujawinski E.B., Hatcher P.G. Identification of black carbon derived structures in a volcanic ash soil humic acid by Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. Environmental Science and Technology 2004, 38:3387-3395.
47. Kruse J., Eckhardt K.-U., Regier T.Z., Leinweber P. TG-FTIR, LC/MS, XANES and Py-FIMS to disclose the thermal decomposition pathways and aromatic N formation during dipeptide pyrolysis in a soil matrix. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 2011, 90:164-173.
48. Law W.M., Lau W.N., Lo K.L., Wai L.M., Chiu S.W. Removal of biocide pentachlorophenol in water system by the spent mushroom compost of Pleurotus pulmonarius. Chemosphere 2003, 52:1531-1537.
49. Lehmann J. Bio-energy in the black. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2007, 5:381-387.
50. Lehmann J., Liang B., Solomon D., Lerotic M., Luizão F., Kinyangi J., Schäfer T., Wirick S., Jacobsen C. Near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy for mapping nanoscale distribution of organic carbon forms in soil: application to black carbon particles. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2005, 19:1013-1025.
51. Lehmann J., Solomon D., Kinyangi J., Dathe L., Wirick S., Jacobsen C. Spatial complexity of soil organic matter forms at nanometre scales. Nature Geosciences 2008, 1:238-242.
52. Leinweber P., Schulten H.-R. Nonhydrolysable organic nitrogen in soil size separates: changes due to management practices and identification by analytical pyrolysis. Soil Science Society America Journal 1998, 62:383-393.
53. Leinweber P., Schulten H.-R. Nonhydrolyzable forms of soil organic nitrogen: extractability and composition. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 2000, 163:433-439.
54. Leinweber P., Kruse J., Walley F.L., Gillespie A., Eckhardt K.-U., Blyth R.I.R., Regier T. Nitrogen K-edge XANES - an overview of reference compounds used to identify 'unknown' organic nitrogen in environmental samples. Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 2007, 14:500-511.
55. Leinweber, P., Jandl, G., Eckhardt, K.-U., Schulten, H.-R., Schlichting, A., Hofmann, D., 2009. Analytical pyrolysis and soft-ionization mass spectrometry. In: Senesi, N., Xing, B., Huang, P.M. (Eds.), Biophysico-Chemical Processes Involving Natural Nonliving Organic Matter in Environmental Systems. Wiley-IUPAC Series, pp. 539-588.
56. Leinweber P., Kruse J., Walley F.L., Gillespie A., Eckhardt K.-U., Blyth R.I.R., Regier T. Nitrogen compounds in dissolved and solid environmental samples. Developments in Soil Science - Synchrotron-Based Techniques in Soils and Sediments 2010, vol. 34:55-288. Elsevier, Oxford.
57. Leinweber P., Jandl G., Eckhardt K.-U., Kruse J., Walley F.L., Khan M.J., Blyth R.I.R., Regier T. Nitrogen speciation in fine and coarse clay fractions of a Cryoboroll - new evidence from pyrolysis-mass spectrometry and nitrogen K-edge XANES. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 2010, 90:309-318.
58. Liang B., Lehmann J., Solomon D., Kinyangi J., Grossman J., O'Neill B., Skjemstad J.O., Thies J., Luizão F.J., Petersen J., Neves E.G. Black carbon increases cation exchange capacity in soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 2006, 70:1719-1730.
59. Lien Y.C., Nawar W.W. Thermal interaction of amino acids and triglyceride valine and tricaproin. Journal of Food Science 1974, 39:917-919.
60. Lohmann R., Lammel G. Adsorptive and absorptive contributions to the gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: state of knowledge and recommended parametrization for modeling. Environmental Science and Technology 2004, 38:3793-3803.
61. Lohmann R., MacFarlane J.K., Gschwend P.M. Importance of black carbon to sorption of native PAHs, PCBs, and PCDDs in Boston and New York Harbor sediments. Environmental Science and Technology 2005, 39:141-148.
62. Martin F., Saiz-Jiménez C., Cert A. Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of soil humic fractions, II. The high boiling point compounds. Soil Science Society of America Journal 1979, 43:309-312.
63. Masiello C.A. New directions in black carbon organic geochemistry. Marine Chemistry 2004, 92:201-213.
64. Masiello C.A., Druffel E.R.M. Black carbon in deep-sea sediments. Science 1998, 280:1911-1913.
65. Masiello C.A., Druffel E.R.M., Currie L.A. Radiocarbon measurements of black carbon in aerosols and ocean sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2002, 66:1025-1036.
66. Naafs, D.F.W. 2004. What are humic substances? A molecular approach to the study of organic matter in acid soils. PhD thesis, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands.
67. Nierop K.G.J., Pulleman M.M., Marinissen J.C.Y. Management induced organic matter differentiation in grassland and arable soil: a study using pyrolysis techniques. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2001, 33:755-764.
68. 7 extractable organic matter in two volcanic ash soils of the Azores Islands - a pyrolysis GC/MS study. Geoderma 2005, 127:36-51.
69. Pavlychev A.A., Hallmeier K.H., Hennig C., Hennig L., Szargan R. Nitrogen K-shell excitations in complex molecules and polypyrrole. Chemical Physics 1995, 201:547-555.
70. Quénéa K., Derenne S., Largeau C., Rumpel C., Mariotti A. Spectroscopic and pyrolytic features and abundance of the macromolecular refractory fraction in a sandy acid forest soil (Landes de Gascogne, France). Organic Geochemistry 2005, 36:349-362.
71. Saiz-Jiménez C., de Leeuw J.W. Nature of plant components identified in soil humic acids. The Science of the Total Environment 1987, 62:115-119.
72. Saiz-Jiménez C., Hermosin B., Ortega-Calvo J.J. Pyrolysis/Methylation: a method for structural elucidation of the chemical nature of aquatic humic substances. Water Research 1993, 27:1693-1696.
73. Schmidt M.W.I., Noack A.G. Black carbon in soils and sediments analysis distribution, implications, and current challenges. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2000, 14:777-794.
74. Schnitzer M., Schulten H.-R. The analysis of soil organic matter by pyrolysis-field ionization mass spectrometry. Soil Science Society of America Journal 1992, 56:1811-1817.
75. Schreiber K.-F., Drobnik J., Poschlod P. Das Kontrollierte Brennen als Pflegemaßnahme von Grünlandbrachen. Forstarchiv 2009, 80:265-279.
76. Schulten H.-R. Analytical pyrolysis of humic substances and soils: geochemical, agricultural and ecological consequences. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 1998, 25:97-122.
77. Schulten H.-R., Görtz W. Curie-point pyrolysis and field ionization mass spectrometry of polysaccharides. Analytical Chemistry 1978, 50:428-433.
78. Schulten H.-R., Hempfling R. Influence of agricultural soil management on humus composition and dynamics: classical and modern analytical techniques. Plant and Soil 1992, 142:259-271.
79. Schulten H.-R., Leinweber P. Thermal stability and composition of mineral-bound organic matter in density fractions of soil. European Journal of Soil Science 1999, 50:237-248.
80. Schulten H.-R., Schnitzer M. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of long-chain aliphatics from two soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 1991, 55:1603-1611.
81. Schulten H.-R., Schnitzer M. A contribution to solving the puzzle of the chemical structure of humic substances: pyrolysis-soft ionization mass spectrometry. The Science of the Total Environment 1992, 117/118:29-39.
82. Schulten H.-R., Schnitzer M. The chemistry of soil organic nitrogen: a review. Biology & Fertility of Soils 1998, 26:1-15.
83. Schulten H.-R., Plage B., Schnitzer M. A chemical structure for humic substances. Naturwissenschaften 1991, 78:311-312.
84. Schulten H.-R., Leinweber P., Jandl G. Analytical pyrolysis of humic substances and dissolved organic matter in water. Refractory Organic Substances in the Environment 2002, 163-187. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. F.H. Frimmel, G. Abbt-Braun, K.-G. Heumann, B. Hock, H.-D. Lüdemann, M. Spiteller (Eds.).
85. Solomon D., Lehmann J., Kinyangi J., Liang B., Heymann K., Dathe L., Hanley K., Wirick S., Jacobsen C. Carbon (1s) NEXAFS spectroscopy of biogeochemically relevant reference organic compounds. Soil Science Society of America Journal 2009, 73:1817-1830.
86. Sorge, C. 1995. Struktur der organische Substanz in Böden und Partikelfraktionen: Pyrolyse-Gaschromatographie/Massenspektronomie und Pyrolyse-Feld-ionisation Massenspektrometrie. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Kiel, Germany.
87. Sorge C., Schnitzer M., Schulten H.-R. In-source pyrolysis-field ionization mass spectrometry and Curie-point pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of amino acids in humic substances and soils. Biology and Fertility of Soils 1993, 16:100-110.
88. Stevenson F.J. Nitrogen in Agricultural Soils. Agronomy Monograph 22 1982, American Society of Agronomy, Wisconsin, Madison.
89. Stuczynski T.I., McCarthy G.W., Reeves J.B., Wright R.J. Use of pyrolysis GC/MS for assessing changes in soil organic matter quality. Soil Science 1997, 162:97-105.
90. Tomczyk M., Latté K.P. Potentilla - a review of its phytochemical and pharmacological profile. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2009, 122:184-204.
91. Vairavamurthy A., Wang S. Organic nitrogen in geomacromolecules: insights on speciation and transformation with K-edge XANES spectroscopy. Environmental Science and Technology 2002, 36:3050-3056.
92. van Bochove E., Couillard D., Schnitzer M., Schulten H.-R. Pyrolysis-field ionization mass spectrometry of the four phases of cow manure composting. Soil Science Society of America Journal 1996, 60:1781-1786.
93. van der Kaaden A., Boon J.J., de Leeuw J.W., Lange F., Schuyl P.J.W., Schulten H.-R., Bahr U. Comparison of analytical pyrolysis techniques in the characterization of chitin. Analytical Chemistry 1984, 56:2160-2164.
94. Wan J., Tyliszczak T., Tokunaga T.K. Organic carbon distribution, speciation, and elemental correlations within soil microaggregates: applications of STXM and NEXAFS spectroscopy. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2007, 71:5439-5449.
95. Weaver, R.W., Angle, J.S., Bottomley, P.S., 1994. Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2: Microbiological and Biochemical Properties. SSSA, Madison.
96. Werth M., Brauckmann H.-J., Broll G., Schreiber K.-F. Analysis and simulation of soil organic-carbon stocks in grassland ecosystems in SW Germany. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 2005, 168:472-482.
97. Wojdyr M. Fityk: a general-purpose peak fitting program. Journal of Applied Crystallography 2010, 43:1126-1128.
98. Yoon T.H., Benzerara K., Ahn S., Luthy R.G., Tyliszczak T., Brown G.E. Nanometer-scale chemical heterogeneities of black carbon materials and their impacts on PCB sorption properties: soft X-ray spectromicroscopy study. Environmental Science and Technology 2006, 40:5923-5929.
99. Zimmermann R., Mühlberger F., Fuhrer K., Gonin M., Welthagen W. An ultracompact photo-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometer with a novel vacuum ultraviolet light source for on-line detection of organic trace compounds and as a detector for gas chromatography. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 2008, 10:24-31.