Black carbon in soils and sediments: Analysis, distribution, implications, and current challenges

Global Biogeochemical Cycles

Volumn 14, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 777-793

  Schmidt, Michael W I ^a,c,d   Noack, Angela G ^b  

^a TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

^d MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR BIOGEOCHEMISTRY   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BLACK CARBON; COMBUSTION; LOESS; SEDIMENT; SOIL CARBON;

EID: 0033761807     PISSN: 08866236     EISSN: 19449224     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/1999GB001208     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. Akhter, M. S., A. R. Chughtai, D. M. Smith, The structure of hexane soot, I; Spectroscopic studies, Appl. Spectrosc., 39 1, 143-153, 1985 a.
2. Akhter, M. S., A. R. Chughtai, D. M. Smith, The structure of hexane soot, II; Extraction studies, Appl. Spectrosc., 39 1, 154-167, 1985 b.
3. Almendros, G., F. Martin, F. J. Gonález-Vila, Effects of fire on humic and lipid fractions in a Dystric Xerochrept in Spain, Geoderma, 42, 115-127, 1988.
4. Almendros, G., F. J. González-Vila, F. Martin, R. Fründ, H.-D. Lüdemann, Solid state NMR studies of fire-induced changes in the structure of humic substances, Sci. Total Environ., 117/118, 63-74, 1992.
5. Altemüller, H.-J., Visuelle Erscheinungs- und Zustandsformen der organischen Bodensubstanz, Ber. Landwirtsch., 206, 30-44, 1992.
6. Anderson, R. S., S. J. Smith, Paleoclimatic interpretation of meadow sediment and pollen stratigraphies from California, Geology, 22, 723-726, 1994.
7. Andreae, E., Biomass burning: Its history, use, and distribution and its impact on environmental quality and global climate, Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic, and Biospheric Implications, J. S. Levine, 3-21, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1991.
8. Bailey, J. G., A. Tate, C. F. K. Diessel, T. F. Wall, A char morphology system with applications to coal combustion, Fuel, 69, 225-239, 1990.
9. Beck, C. B., K. Coy, R. Schmidt, Observations of the fine structure of Callixylon wood, Am. J. Bot., 65, 54-76, 1982.
10. Beeston, J. W., Aspects of the inertinite formation and deposition in the Denison Troug, Queensland, Aust. J. Coal. Geol., 7, 33-45, 1987.
11. Bird, M. I., J. A. Cali, A million-year record of fire in sub-Saharan Africa, Nature, 394, 767-769, 1998.
12. Bird, M., D. R. Gröcke, Determination of the abundance and carbon isotope composition of elemental carbon in sediments, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 61, 3413-3423, 1997.
13. Bird, M. I., E. Veenendaal, C. Moyo, J. Lloyd, P. Frost, Stability of elemental carbon in a savanna soil, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 13, 933-950, 2000.
14. Burgess, N. D., D. Edwards, A new Palaeozoic plant closely allied to Prototaxites Dawson, Bot. J. Linn. Soc., 97, 189-203, 1988.
15. Cachier, H., M. P. Bremond, P. Buat-Menard, Carbonaceous aerosols from different tropical biomass burning sources, Nature, 340, 371-373, 1989.
16. Cady, J. G., L. P. Wilding, L. R Dreefs, Petrographic microscope techniques, Methods of Soil Analysis, A. Klute, 185-218, Am. Soc. Agron., Madison, Wis., 1986.
17. Cambardella, C. A., E. T. Elliott, Particulate soil organic matter changes across a grassland cultivation sequence, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 56, 777-783, 1992.
18. Chaloner, W. G., Fossil charcoal as an indicator of palaeoatmospheric oxygen level, J. Geol. Soc. London, 146, 171-174, 1989.
19. Chang, S., R. A. Berner, Coal weathering and the geochemical carbon cycle, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 63, 3301-3310, 1999.
20. Chiou, C. T., D. E. Kile, Deviations from sorption linearity on soils of polar and nonpolar organic compounds at low relative concentrations, Environ. Sci. Technol., 32, 338-343, 1998.
21. Chylek, P., V. Srivastava, L. Cahenzli, R. G. Pinnick, R. L. Dod, T. Novakov, T. L. Cook, B. D. Hinds, Aerosol and graphitic carbon content of snow, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 9801-9809, 1987.
22. Chylek, P., B. Johnson, P. A. Damiano, Biomass burning and black carbon in the GISP2 ice core, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 89-92, 1995.
23. Clark, J. S., Particle motion and the theory of charcoal analysis: Source area, transport, deposition, and sampling, Quat. Res., 30, 67-80, 1988 a.
24. Clark, J. S., Stratigraphic charcoal analysis on petrographic thin sections: Application to fire history in northwestern Minnesota, Quat. Res., 30, 81-91, 1988 b.
25. Clark, J. S., T. C. Hussey, Estimating the mass flux of charcoal from sedimentary records: Effects of particle size, morphology and orientation, Holocene, 6, 129-144, 1996.
26. Clark, J. S., P. D. Royall, Particle-size evidence for source areas of charcoal accumulation in late Holocene sediments of eastern North American lakes, Quat. Res., 43, 80-89, 1995.
27. Sediment Records of Biomass Burning and Global Change, NATO ASI Ser. Ser. I, 51, J. S. Clark, H. Cachier, J. G. Goldhammer, B. Stocks, 489, 1997.
28. Cohen, M. S., P. D. Gabriele, Degradation of coal by the fungi Polyporus versicolor and Poria monticola, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 44 1, 23-27, 1982.
29. Cook, A. C., The spatial and temporal variation of the type and rank of Australian coals, Australian Black Coal: Its Occurence, Mining, Preparation and Use, A. C. Cook, 63-84, Aust. Inst. for Mining and Metall, Illawarra, New South Wales, Australia, 1975.
30. Cope, M. J., W. G. Chaloner, Fossil charcoal as evidence of past atmospheric composition, Nature, 283, 647-649, 1980.
31. Crutzen, P. J., M. O. Andreae, Biomass burning in the tropics: Impact on atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles, Science, 250, 1669-1678, 1990.
32. Crutzen, P. J., J. G. Goldammer, Fire in the environment: The ecological, atmospheric, and climatic importance of vegetation fires, Dahlem Workshop Reports Environmental Sciences Research Report, 415John Wiley, New York, 1993.
33. Cwynar, L. C., Recent history of fire and vegetation from laminated sediment of Greenleaf Lake, Algonquin Park, Ontario, Can. J. Bot., 56, 10-21, 1978.
34. Dueser, W. G., K. Emeis, V. Ittekot, E. T. Degens, Fly-ash particles intercepted in the deep Sargasso Sea, Nature, 305, 216-218, 1983.
35. Ebbesen, T. W., H. Hiura, J. W. Hedenquist, C. E. J. de Ronde, A. Andersen, O. Often, V. A. Melezhik, Origins of fullerenes in rocks, Science, 268, 1634-1635, 1995.
36. Emiliani, C., D. A. Price, D. J. Seipp, Is the post glacial artificial?, Spec. Publ. Geochem. Soc., 3, 229-231, 1991.
37. 2 with special reference to soil organic matter, Soils and the Greenhouse Effect, A. F. Bouwman, 247-261, John Wiley, New York, 1990.
38. Fakoussa, R. M., Mikroorganismen erschlieβen Kohle-Ressourcen, BioEngineering, 4, 21-28, 1992.
39. Falcon-Lang, H., The impact of wildfire of an Early Carboniferous coastal environment, North Mayo, Ireland, Palaeogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleaoecol., 139, 121-138, 1998.
40. Fearnside, P. M., Greenhouse gas contributions from deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia, Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic, and Biospheric Implications, J. S. Levine, 92-105, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1991.
41. Fearnside, P. M., L. Leal, F. M. Fernandes, Rainforest burning and the global carbon budget: Biomass, combustion efficiency and charcoal formation in the Brazilian Amazon, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 16733-16743, 1993.
42. Fedoroff, N., M. A. Courty, M. L. Thompson, Micromorphological evidence of paleoenvironmental change in Pleistocene and Holocene plaeosols, Soil Micromorphology: A Basic and Applied Science, L. A. Douglas, 653-665, Elsevier Sci., New York, 1990.
43. Foellmer, A., A. Hoppe, R. Dehn, Anthropogene Schwermetallanreicherungen in holozänen Auensedimenten der Möhlin (südlicher Oberrheingraben), Geowissenschafien, 15, 61-66, 1997.
44. Garbarini, D. R., L. W. Lion, Influence of soil organics on the sorption of toluene and trichloethylene, Environ. Sci. Technol., 20, 1263-1269, 1986.
45. Gehring, A. U., G. Guggenberger, W. Zech, J. Luster, Combined magnetic, spectroscopic and analytical-chemical approach to infer genetic information for a Vertisol, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 61, 78-85, 1997.
46. Gifford, R. M., The global carbon cycle: a viewpoint on the missing sink, Austral. J. Plant Physiol., 21, 1-15, 1994.
47. Glaser, B., L. Haumaier, G. Guggenberger, W. Zech, Black carbon in soils: The use of benzenecarboxylic acids as specific markers, Org. Geochem., 29 4, 811-819, 1997.
48. Glaser, B., G. Guggenberger, L. Haumeier, W. Zech, Sustainable soils in the Brazilian Amazon Humic Substances Downunder, Understanding and Managing Organic Matter in Soils, Sediments and Waters, 9th IHSS ConferenceInt. Humic Substances Soc.Adelaide, South Australia, Australia, 1998.
49. 13C NMR spectroscopy, II, Density fractions, Geoderma, 76, 175-192, 1997 a.
50. 13C NMR spectroscopy. I. Whole soil and humic acid fraction, Geoderma, 76, 155-174, 1997 b.
51. Goldammer, J. G., B. Seibert, Natural rain forest fires in eastern Borneo during the Pleistocene and Holocene, Naturwissenschaften, 76, 518-520, 1989.
52. Goldberg, E. D., Black Carbon in the Environment, 198, John Wiley, New York, 1985.
53. Grathwohl, P., Influence of organic matter from soils and sediments from various origins on sorption of some chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons: Implications on Koc correlations, Environ. Sci. Technol., 24, 1687-1693, 1990.
54. Griffin, J. J., E. D. Goldberg, The fluxes of elemental carbon in coastal marine sediments, Limnol. Oceanogr., 20, 456-463, 1975.
55. Griffin, J. J., E. D. Goldberg, Morphologies and origin of elemental carbon in the environment, Science, 206, 563-565, 1979.
56. Griffin, J. J., E. D. Goldberg, Impact of fossil fuel combustion on sediments of Lake Michigan: A reprise, Environ. Sci. Technol., 17, 244-245, 1983.
57. Gustafsson, Ö., P. M. Gschwend, Soot as a strong partition medium for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, Molecular Markers in Environmental Geochemistry, R. P. Eganhouse, 365-381, Am. Chem. Soc., Washington, D. C., 1997.
58. Gustafsson, Ö., P. M. Gschwend, The flux of black carbon to surface sediments on the New England continental shelf, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 62, 465-472, 1998.
59. Gustafsson, Ö., F. Haghseta, C. Chan, J. Macfarlane, P. M. Gschwend, Quantification of the dilute sedimentary soot phase: Implications for PAH speciation and bioavailability, Environ. Sci. Technol., 24, 1687-1693, 1997.
60. Harris, T. M., Forest fire in the Mesozoic, J. Ecol., 46, 447-453, 1958.
61. Harvey, R. D., J. W. Dillon, Maceral distributions in Illinois coals and their palaeoenvironmental implications, Int. J. Coal Geol., 5, 141-165, 1985.
62. Hassink, J., Effects of soil texture and grassland management on soil organic C and N and rates of C and N mineralization, Soil Biol. Biochem., 26 9, 1221-1231, 1994.
63. Hatcher, P. G., M. Schnitzer, A. M. Vassallo, M. A. Wilson, The chemical structure of highly aromatic humic acids in three volcanic ash soils as determined by dipolar dephasing NMR studies, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 53, 125-130, 1989.
64. Haumaier, L., W. Zech, Black carbon-Possible source of highly aromatic components of soil humic acids, Org. Geochem., 23, 191-196, 1995.
65. Heidenreich, R. D., W. M. Hess, L. L. Ban, A test object and criteria for high resolution electron microscopy, J. Appl. Crystallogr., 1, 1-19, 1968.
66. 2: Natural variations Archean to Present, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., 32, E. T. Sundguist, W. S. Broecker, 419-441, AGU, Washington, D. C., 1985.
67. Hiller, D. A., G. W. Brümmer, Mikrosondenuntersuchungen an unterschiedlich stark mit Schwermetallen belasteten Böden, 2, Gehalte an Schwermetallen und anderen Elementen in Huminstoffaggregationen, Streustoffen und Holzkohlepartikeln, Z. Pflanzenernaehr. Bodenkd., 160, 47-55, 1997.
68. Hofrichter, M., D. Ziegenhagen, S. Sorge, R. Ullrich, F. Bublitz, W. Fritsche, Degradation of lignite (low-rank-coal) by lignolytic basidiomycetes and their peroxidase system, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 52, 78-84, 1999.
69. Jones, T. P., W. G. Chaloner, Fossil charcoal, its recognition and palaeoatmospheric significance, Palaeogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 97, 39-50, 1991.
70. Jones, T. P., W. G. Chaloner, T. A. J. Kuhlbusch, Proposed biogeological and chemical based terminology for fire-altered plant matter, Sedimental Records of Biomass Burning and Global Change, J. S. Clark, et al., 9-22, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1997.
71. Kalkreuth, W., D. A. Leckie, Sedimentological and petrographical characteristics of Cretaceous strandplain coals: A model for coal accumulation from the North American Western Interior Seaway, Int. J. Coal Geol., 12, 381-424, 1989.
72. Karls, J. F., E. R. Christensen, Carbon particles in dated sediments from Lake Michigan, Green Bay, and tributaries, Environ. Sci. Technol., 32, 225-231, 1998.
73. Kershaw, A. P., Climatic change and aboriginal burning in northeast Australia during the last two glacial/interglacial cycles, Nature, 322, 47-49, 1986.
74. Kershaw, A. P., G. M. McKenzie, A. McMinn, The nature and evolution of lithotypes in the Tertiary brown coals of the Latrobe Valley, southeastern Australia, Int. J. Coal Geol., 18, 233-249, 1993.
75. Kershaw, A. P., M. B. Bush, G. S. Hope, K.-F. Weiss, J. G. Goldammer, R. Sanford, The contribution of humans to past biomass burning in the tropics, Sedimental Records of Biomass Burning and Global Change, J. S., et al., 413-442, Springer-Verlag, 1997.
76. Killops, S. D., M. S. Massoud, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons of pyrolytic origin in ancient sediments: evidence for Jurassic fires, Org. Geochem., 18, 1-7, 1992.
77. Kleineidam, S., H. Rügner, B. Ligouis, P. Grathwohl, Organic matter facies and equilibrium sorption of phenanthrene, Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 1737-1644, 1999.
78. Komarek, E. V., Ancient fires Tall Timbers Fire Ecology ConferenceTall Timbers Res. Stn.Tallahassee, Fla., 1972.
79. Kononova, M. M., Soil Organic Matter, 544, Pergamon, Tarrytown, N. Y., 1966.
80. Kruge, M. A., A. B. Stankiewicz, J. C. Crelling, A. Montanari, D. F. Bensley, Fossil charcoal in Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary strata: Evidence for catastrophic firestorm and megawave, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 58, 1393-1397, 1994.
81. Kubiena, W. L., Micropedology, 243, Collegiate Press, Ames, Iowa, 1938.
82. Kuhlbusch, T. A. J., Method for determining black carbon in residues of vegetation fires, Environ. Sci. Technol., 29, 2695-2702, 1995.
83. Kuhlbusch, T. A. J., Black carbon and the carbon cycle, Science, 280, 1903-1904, 1998 a.
84. Kuhlbusch, T. A. J., Black carbon in soils, sediments and ice cores, Encyclopedia of Environmental Analysis and Remediation, R. A. Meyers, 813-823, John Wiley, New York, 1998 b.
85. 2, Global Biogeochem. Cylces, 9 4, 491-501, 1995.
86. Kuhlbusch, T. A. J., P. J. Crutzen, Black carbon, the carbon cycle, and atmospheric carbon dioxide, Biomass Burning and Global Change, J. S. Levine, 160-169, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1996.
87. Kuhlbusch, T. A. J., M. O. Andreae, H. Cachier, J. G. Goldammer, J.-P. Lacaux, R. Shea, P. J. Crutzen, Black carbon formation by savanna fires: Measurements and implications for the global carbon cycle, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 23651-23665, 1996.
88. Kumada, K., Carbonaceous materials as a possible source of soil humus, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 29, 383-386, 1983.
89. Kumada, K., The nature and genesis of humic acid, Chemistry of Soil Organic Matter, K. Kumada, 181-204, Elsevier Sci., New York, 1987.
90. Kumada, K., O. Sato, Y. Ohsumi, S. Ohta, Humus composition of mountain soils in central Japan with special reference to the distributions of P type humic acid, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. Tokyo, 13, 151-158, 1967.
91. Lapo, A. V., Phyterals of Jurassic coals of Tuva, Plaeobotanist, 25, 205-216, 1976.
92. Lim, B., H. Cachier, Determination of black carbon by chemical oxidation and thermal treatment in recent marine and lake sediments and Cretaceous-Tertiary clays, Chem. Geol., 131, 143-154, 1996.
93. Lim, B., I. Renberg, Lake sediment records of fossil fuel-derived carbonaceous aerosols from combustion, Sedimental Records of Biomass Burning and Global Change, J. S. Clark, et al., 442-459, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1997.
94. MacDonald, G. M., C. P. S. Larsen, J. M. Szeicz, K. A. Moser, The reconstruction of boreal forest fire history from lake sediments: A comparison of charcoal, pollen, sedimentological and geochemical indices, Quat. Sci. Rev., 10, 53-71, 1991.
95. Masiello, C. A., E. R. M. Druffel, Black carbon in deep sea sediments, Science, 280, 1911-1913, 1998.
96. McCarty, G. W., R. Siddaramappa, R. J. Wright, E. E. Codling, G. Gao, Evaluation of coal combustion byproducts as soil liming materials: Their influence on soil pH and enzyme activities, Biol. Fertil. Soils, 17, 167-172, 1994.
97. McGroddy, S. E., J. W. Farrington, Sediment porewater partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in three cores from Boston Harbor, Massachusetts, Environ. Sci. Technol., 29, 1542-1550, 1995.
98. McGroddy, S. E., J. W. Farrington, P. M. Gschwend, Comparison of the in situ and desorption sediment-Water partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polyehlorinated biphenyls, Environ. Sci. Technol., 30, 172-177, 1996.
99. McLean, D. M., Impact winter in the global KiT extinctions: No definitive evidences, Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic, and Biospheric Implications, J. S. Levine, 493-503, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1991.
100. Middelburg, J. J., J. Nieuwenhuize, P. van Breugel, Black carbon in marine sediments, Mar. Chem., 65, 245-252, 1999.
101. Miltner, A., W. Zech, Effects of minerals on the transformation of organic matter during simulated fire-induced pyrolysis, Org. Geochem., 26, 175-182, 1997.
102. Morley, R. J., K. Richards, Graminae cuticle: A key indicator of late Cenozoic climatic change in the Niger Delta, Rev. Paleobot. Palynol., 77, 119-128, 1993.
103. Nichols, G., T. P. Jones, Fusain in Carboniferous shallow marine sediments, Donegal, Ireland: the sedimentological effects of wildfire, Sedimentology, 39, 487-502, 1992.
104. Odegaard, B. V., The sedimentary record of spheroidal carbonaceous fly-ash particles in shallow Danish lakes, J. Paleolimnology, 8, 171-187, 1993.
105. Ohta, S., A. Suzuki, K. Kumada, Experimental studies on the behavior of fine organic particles and water-soluble organic matter in mineral soil horizons, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. Tokyo, 32, 15-26, 1986.
106. Parthasarathy, G., R. Srinivasan, M. Vairamani, K. Ravikumar, A. C. Kunwar, Occurence of natural fullerenes in low grade metamorphosed Proterozoic shungite from Karelia, Russia, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 62, 3541-3544, 1998.
107. Patterson, W. A., K. J. Edwards, D. J. Maguire, Microscopic charcoal as a fossil indicator of fire, Quat. Sci. Rev., 6, 3-23, 1987.
108. Pawluk, S., Soil micromorphology and soil fauna: Problems and importance, Quaest. Entomologicae, 21, 473-496, 1985.
109. Penner, J. E., H. Eddleman, T. Novakov, Towards the development of a global inventory for black carbon emissions, Atmos. Environ., 27 8, 1277-1259, 1993.
110. 14C) in soil to evaluate vegetation changes during the Holocene in central Brazil, Radiocarbon, 38, 191-201, 1996.
111. Potter, M. C., Bacteria as agents in the oxidation of amorphous carbon, Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B, 80, 239-259, 1908.
112. Raison, R. J., Modifications of the soil environment by vegetation fires: A review, Plant Soil, 51, 73-108, 1979.
113. Renberg, I., M. Wik, Soot particle counting in recent lake sediments: An indirect dating method, Ecol. Bull., 37, 53-57, 1985.
114. 2 variation, fire, and terrestrial ecology, Global Planet. Change, 1, 223-240, 1989.
115. Robinson, J. M., W. G. Chaloner, T. P. Jones, Pre-Quaternary records of wildfire, Sedimental Records of Biomass Burning and Global Change, J. S. Clark, et al., 253-270, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1997.
116. Rose, N. L., A method for the extraction of carbonaceous particles from lake sediment, J. Paleolimnology, 3, 45-53, 1990.
117. Rummery, T. A., The use of magnetic measurements in interpreting the fire histories of lake drainage basins, Hydrobiologica, 103, 53-58, 1983.
118. Rumpel, C., H. Knicker, I. Kögel-Knabner, R. F. Hüttl, Airborne contamination of immature soil (Lusation mining district) by lignite-derived materials: Its detection and contribution to the soil organic matter budget, Water Air Soil Pollut., 105, 481-492, 1998.
119. Saldarriaga, J. G., D. C. West, Holocence fires in the northern Amazon Basin, Quat. Res., 26, 358-366, 1986.
120. Sanford, R. L., J. Saldarriaga, K. E. Clark, C. Uhl, R. Herrera, Amazon rain-forest fires, Science, 227, 53-55, 1985.
121. Sase, T., M. Hosono, Vegetation histories of Holocene volcanic ash soils in Japan and New Zealand-Relationship between genesis of melanic volcanic ash soils and human impact, Earth Sci., 50, 466-482, 1996.
122. Schiffmann, P. M., W. C. Johnson, Phytomass and detrital carbon storage during forest regrowth in the southeastern United States Piedmont, Can. J. Forest. Res., 19, 69-78, 1989.
123. Schmidt, M. W. I., H. Knicker, P. G. Hatcher, I. Kögel-Knabner, Impact of brown coal dust on the organic matter in particle-size fractions of a Mollisol, Org. Geochem., 25, 29-39, 1996.
124. Schmidt, M. W. I., J. O. Skjemstad, E. Gehrt, I. Kögel-Knabner, Charred organic carbon in German chernozemic soils, Eur. J. Soil Sci., 50, 351-365, 1999.
125. Schmidt, M. W. I., H. Knicker, P. G. Hatcher, I. Kögel-Knabner, Airborne contamination of forest soils by carbonaceous particles from industrial coal processing, J. Environ. Qual., 29 3, 768-777, 2000.
126. Schnitzer, M., Bedeutung der organischen Bodensubstanz für die Bodenbildung, Transportprozesse in Böden und die Bodenstruktur, Ber. Landwirtsch., 206, 63-81, 1992.
127. Schultz, E., Size-fractionated measurement of coarse black carbon particles in deposition samples, Atmos. Environ. Part A, 27, 1241-1249, 1993.
128. Schutter, M. E., J. J. Fuhrman, Microbial responses to coal fly ash under field conditions, J. Environ. Qual., 28, 648-652, 1999.
129. Scott, A. C., Observations on the nature and origin of fusain, Int. J. Coal Geol., 12, 443-475, 1989.
130. Seiler, W., P. J. Crutzen, Estimates of gross and net fluxes of carbon between the biosphere and the atmosphere from biomass burning, Clim. Change, 2, 207-247, 1980.
131. Sergides, C. A., J. A. Jassim, A. R. Chugbrai, D. M. Smith, The structure of hexane soot, part III, Ozonation studies, Appl. Spectrosc., 41, 482-492, 1987.
132. Shafizadeh, F., The chemistry of pyrolysis and combustion, The Chemistry of Solid Wood, R. M. Rowell, 481-529, Am. Chem. Soc., Washington, D. C, 1984.
133. Shindo, H., Elementary composition, humus composition, and decomposition in soil of charred grassland plants, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. Tokyo, 37, 651-657, 1991.
134. Shindo, H., M. Urabe, Changes in the humus composition of volcanic ash soils by heating at various temperatures, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. Tokyo, 39, 189-192, 1993.
135. Shindo, H., T. Higashi, Y. Matsui, Comparison of humic acids from charred residues of Susuki (Eulalia, Miscanthus sinensis A.) and from the A horizons of volcanic ash soils, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. Tokyo, 32, 579-586, 1986.
136. Shneour, E., Oxidation of graphite carbon in certain soils, Science, 155, 991-992, 1966.
137. Singh, G., A. P. Kerhaw, R. Clark, Quaternary vegetation and fire history in Australia, Fire in the Australian Biota, A. M. Gill, R. H. Groves, I. R. Noble, 23-54, Aust. Acad. Sci., Canberra, ACT, 1981.
138. 13C natural abundance, Aust. J. Soil Res., 28, 267-276, 1990.
139. Skjemstad, J. O., L. J. Janik, M. J. Head, S. G. MacClure, High energy ultraviolet photo-oxidation: a novel technique for studying physically protected organic matter in clay- and silt-sized aggregates, J. Soil Sci., 44, 485-499, 1993.
140. Skjemstad, J. O., P. Clarke, J. A. Taylor, J. M. Oades, S. G. McClure, The chemistry and nature of protected carbon in soil, Aust. J. Soil Res., 34, 251-271, 1996.
141. 13C NMR spectroscopy, Driven by Nature: Plant Litter Quality and Decomposition, G. Cadisch, K. Giller, 253-271, Cab Int., Wallingford, England, 1997.
142. Skjemstad, J. O., J. A. Taylor, R. J. Smernik, Estimation of charcoal (char) in soils, Com. Soil Sci. Plant Analysis, 30, 2283-2298, 1999.
143. Smith, D. M., A. R. Chughtai, The surface structure and reactivity of black carbon, Colloids Surf. A, 105, 47-77, 1995.
144. Smith, D. M., J. J. Griffin, E. D. Goldberg, Elemental carbon in marine sediments: A baseline for burning, Nature, 241, 268-270, 1973.
145. Smith, D. M., J. J. Griffin, E. D. Goldberg, Spectrometric method for the quantitative determination of elemental carbon, Anal. Chem., 47, 233-238, 1975.
146. Spycher, G., P. Sollins, S. Rose, Carbon and nitrogen in the light fraction of a forest soil: Vertical distribution and seasonal patterns, Soil Sci., 135, 79-87, 1983.
147. Stach, E., M.-T. Mackowski, M. Teichmüller, R. Teichmuller, G. H. Taylor, D. Chandra, Stach's Textbook of Coal Petrology, Gebruder Borntraeger, Stuttgart, Germany, 1982.
148. Suman, D. O., Charcoal production from agricultural burning in Central Panama and its deposition in the sediments of the Gulf of Panama, Environ. Conserv., 13, 51-60, 1986.
149. Suman, D. O., T. A. J. Kuhlbusch, B. Lim, Marine Sediments: A reservoir for black carbon and their use as spatial and temporal records of combustion, Sedimental Records of Biomass Burning and Global Change, J. S. Clark, et al., 271-293, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1997.
150. Swain, A. M., A history of fire and vegetation in northeastern Minnesota as recorded in lake sediments, Quat. Res., 3, 383-396, 1973.
151. Swain, A. M., Environmental changes during the past 2000 years in north-central Wisconsin: Analysis of pollen, charcoal, and seeds in varved lake sediments, Quat. Res., 10, 55-68, 1978.
152. Takahashi, T., R. A. Dahlgren, T. Sase, Formation of melanic epipedons under forest vegetation in the xeric moisture regime of northern California, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. Tokyo, 40, 617-628, 1994.
153. Tate, K. R., G. J. Churchman, R. H. Meinhold, R. H. Newman, Relationships between the type and carbon chemistry of humic acids from some New Zealand and Japanese soils, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. Tokyo, 36, 611-621, 1990.
154. Taylor, G. H., A. C. Cook, Sclerotinite in coal-its petrology and classification, Geol. Mag., 99, 41-52, 1962.
155. Taylor, G. H., S. H. Liu, C. F. K. Diessel, The cold climate origin of inertinite-rich Gondwana coals, Int. J. Coal Geol., 11, 1-22, 1989.
156. Taylor, G. H., M. Teichmuller, A. Davis, C. F. K. Diessel, R. Littke, P. Robert, Organic Petrology, 704, Gebriider Borntraeger, Stuttgart, Germany, 1998.
157. Thompson, R., F. Oldfield, Environmental Magnetism, Allen and Unwin, Winchester, Mass., 1986.
158. Tschudy, R. H., C. L. Pillmore, C. J. Orth, J. S. Gilmore, J. D. Knight, Disruption of the terrestrial plant ecosystem at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, Western Interior, Science, 255, 1030-1032, 1984.
159. Venkatesan, M. I., J. Dahl, Organic geochemical evidence for global fires at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, Nature, 338, 57-60, 1989.
160. Verado, D. J., Charcoal analysis in marine sediments, Limnol. Oceanogr., 42, 192-197, 1997.
161. Verado, D. J., W. F. Ruddiman, Late pleistocene charcoal in tropical Atlantic deep-sea sediments: Climatic and geochemical significance, Geology, 24, 855-857, 1996.
162. Waddington, J. C. B., A stratigraphic record of the pollen flux to a lake in the Big Woods of Minnesota, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 123, 263-282, 1969.
163. Ward, D. E., Factors influencing the emissions of gases and particulate matter from biomass burning, Fire in the Tropical Biota: Ecosystem Processes and Global Challenges, J. G. Goldammer, 418-436, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1990.
164. Wardle, D. A., O. Zackrisson, M.-C. Nilsson, The charcoal effect in Boreal forests: Mechanisms and ecological consequences, Oecologica, 115, 419-426, 1998.
165. Warneck, P., Chemistry of the Natural Atmosphere, 614, Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1988.
166. Watson, A., J. E. Lovelock, L. Margulis, Methanogenesis, fires and the regulation of atmospheric oxygen, BioSystems, 10, 293-298, 1978.
167. Wik, M., I. Renberg, Distribution in forest soils of carbonaceous particles from fossil fuel combustions, Water Air Soil Pollut., 33, 125-129, 1987.
168. Wik, J., I. Renberg, Recent atmospheric deposition in Sweden of carbonaceous particles from fossil-fuel combustion surveyed using lake sediments, Ambio, 20, 289-292, 1991.
169. Wik, J., I. Renberg, Environmental records of carbonaceous fly-ash particles from fossil-fuel combustion: A summary, J. Paleolimnology, 15 3, 193-206, 1996.
170. Willmann, G., R. M. Fakoussa, Biological bleaching of water soluble coal macromolecules by a basidiomydete strain, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 47, 95-101, 1997.
171. Winkler, M. G., Charcoal analysis for paleoenvironmental interpretation: A chemical assay, Quat. Res., 23, 313-326, 1985.
172. Winkler, M. G., Sensing plant community and climate change by charcoal-isotope analysis, Ecoscience, 1, 340-345, 1994.
173. Winston, R. B., Reassessement of the evidence for primary fusinite and degradofusinite, Org. Geochem., 20, 209-221, 1993.
174. Wolbach, W. S., E. Anders, Elemental carbon in sediments: Determination and isotopic analysis in the presence of kerogen, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 53, 1637-1647, 1989.
175. Wolbach, W. S., R. S. Lewis, E. Anders, Cretaceous extinctions: Evidence for wildfires and search for meteoritic material, Science, 230, 167-170, 1985.
176. Wolbach, W. S., I. Gilmour, E. Anders, C. J. Orth, R. R. Brooks, Global fire at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, Nature, 334, 665-669, 1988.
177. Wolbach, W. S., E. Anders, M. A. Nazarov, Fires at the K/T boundary: Carbon at the Sumbar, Turkmenia, site, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 54, 1133-1146, 1990.
178. Yarilova, E. A., Comparative characteristic of fabric components in some chemozems of the U.S.S.R, Third International Working-Meeting on Soil Micromorphology Wroclaw, 1969, 357-369 Zeszyty Problemowe Postepow Nauk Rolniczych, Wroclaw, Poland, 1972.
179. Zackrisson, O., M. C. Nilson, D. A. Wardie, Key ecological function of charcoal from wildfire in the Boreal forest, Oikos, 77, 10-19, 1996.
180. Zech, W., G. Guggenberger, P. Zalba, N. Peinemann, Soil organic matter transformation in Argentinian Hapludolls, Z. Pflanzenernaehr. Bodenkd., 160, 563-571, 1997.
181. Zepp, R. G., C. Sonntag, The Role of Nonliving Organic Matter in the Earths Carbon Cycle, 342, John Wiley, New York, 1995.