Congenital parasitic infections: A review

Acta Tropica

Volumn 121, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 55-70

  Carlier, Yves ^a,b   Truyens, Carine ^a   Deloron, Philippe ^c   Peyron, François ^d  

^a UNIVERSITÉ LIBRE DE BRUXELLES   (Belgium)

^b TULANE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c INSTITUT DE RECHERCHE POUR LE DÉVELOPPEMENT   (France)

^d CROIX ROUSSE HOSPITAL   (France)

Author keywords

Congenital Chagas disease; Congenital malaria; Congenital toxoplasmosis; Immune responses; Placenta

Indexed keywords

ARTEMISININ; ATOVAQUONE PLUS PROGUANIL; BENZNIDAZOLE; CHLOROQUINE; CLINDAMYCIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; FOLINIC ACID; IMMUNOGLOBULIN A; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M; NIFURTIMOX; PRIMAQUINE; PYRIMETHAMINE; PYRIMETHAMINE PLUS SULFADOXINE; QUININE; SPIRAMYCIN; SULFADIAZINE;

ANTIBODY; EPIDEMIOLOGY; IMMUNE RESPONSE; MALARIA; PARASITE INFESTATION; PATHOGEN; PUBLIC HEALTH; VERTICAL TRANSMISSION;

AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS; AMNIOCENTESIS; ANTIBODY DETECTION; CHAGAS DISEASE; CHILD HEALTH CARE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONGENITAL INFECTION; CONGENITAL TOXOPLASMOSIS; CORDOCENTESIS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DOSE RESPONSE; FETUS OUTCOME; GENOTYPE; HELMINTHIASIS; HOST PARASITE INTERACTION; HUMAN; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RISK; INNATE IMMUNITY; MALARIA; MALARIA FALCIPARUM; MIXED INFECTION; MOTHER FETUS RELATIONSHIP; NEWBORN ASSESSMENT; NEWBORN SCREENING; NONHUMAN; PARASITE CONTROL; PARASITE IDENTIFICATION; PARASITE IMMUNITY; PARASITE LOAD; PARASITE TRANSMISSION; PARASITOSIS; PLASMODIUM; PLASMODIUM VIVAX MALARIA; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REVIEW; SEROLOGY; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; TOXOPLASMA GONDII; TOXOPLASMOSIS; TRICHOMONIASIS; TROPHOBLAST; TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI; VERTICAL TRANSMISSION; VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS;

ANTIPROTOZOAL AGENTS; CHAGAS DISEASE; CLINICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES; FEMALE; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL; MALARIA; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS, PARASITIC; TOXOPLASMOSIS, CONGENITAL;

PLASMODIUM SP.; TOXOPLASMA GONDII; TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI;

EID: 84855948661     PISSN: 0001706X     EISSN: 18736254     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.10.018     Document Type: Review

References (241)

1. Abbasi M., Kowalewska-Grochowska K., Bahar M.A., Kilani R.T., Winkler-Lowen B., Guilbert L.J. Infection of placental trophoblasts by Toxoplasma gondii. J. Infect. Dis. 2003, 188:608-616.
2. Abrahams V.M., Mor G. Toll-like receptors and their role in the trophoblast. Placenta 2005, 26:540-547.
3. Adam I., Elhassan E.M., Omer E.M., Abdulla M.A., Mahgoub H.M., Adam G.K. Safety of artemisinins during early pregnancy, assessed in 62 Sudanese women. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 2009, 103:205-210.
4. Agarwal M., Prasad G.B., Harinath B.C., Bhatia B.D. Transplacental transfer of filarial infection. Indian Pediatr. 1986, 23:169-174.
5. Ajzenberg D., Cogne N., Paris L., Bessieres M.H., Thulliez P., Filisetti D., Pelloux H., Marty P., Darde M.L. Genotype of 86 Toxoplasma gondii isolates associated with human congenital toxoplasmosis, and correlation with clinical findings. J. Infect. Dis. 2002, 186:684-689.
6. Akinbi H.T., Narendran V., Pass A.K., Markart P., Hoath S.B. Host defense proteins in vernix caseosa and amniotic fluid. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2004, 191:2090-2096.
7. Altcheh J., Moscatelli G., Moroni S., Garcia-Bournissen F., Freilij H. Adverse events after the use of benznidazole in infants and children with Chagas disease. Pediatrics 2011, 127:e212-e218.
8. Altemani A.M., Bittencourt A.L., Lana A.M. Immunohistochemical characterization of the inflammatory infiltrate in placental Chagas' disease: a qualitative and quantitative analysis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2000, 62:319-324.
9. Altshuler G., Russell P., Ermocilla R. The placental pathology of small-for-gestational age infants. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1975, 121:351-359.
10. Amaratunga C., Lopera-Mesa T.M., Brittain N.J., Cholera R., Arie T., Fujioka H., Keefer J.R., Fairhurst R.M. A role for fetal hemoglobin and maternal immune IgG in infant resistance to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. PLoS ONE 2011, 6:e14798.
11. Anosike J.C., Onwuliri C.O. A probable case of vertical transmission of Onchocerca volvulus microfilariae. J. Helminthol. 1993, 67:83-84.
12. Apt W., Zulantay I., Solari A., Ortiz S., Oddo D., Corral G., Truyens C., Carlier Y. Vertical transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Province of Choapa, IV Region, Chile: preliminary report (2005-2008). Biol. Res. 2010, 43:269-274.
13. Aspock H., Pollak A. Prevention of prenatal toxoplasmosis by serological screening of pregnant women in Austria. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. Suppl. 1992, 84:32-37.
14. Azogue E., La Fuente C., Darras C. Congenital Chagas' disease in Bolivia: epidemiological aspects and pathological findings. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1985, 79:176-180.
15. Benard A., Petersen E., Salamon R., Chene G., Gilbert R., Salmi L.R. Survey of European programmes for the epidemiological surveillance of congenital toxoplasmosis. Euro Surveill. 2008, 13.
16. Benirschke K., Kaufmann P., Baergen R. Pathology of the Human Placenta 2006, Springer Science+Business Media, New York. 5 ed.
17. Bern C., Verastegui M., Gilman R.H., Lafuente C., Galdos-Cardenas G., Calderon M., Pacori J., Del Carmen A.M., Aparicio H., Brady M.F., Ferrufino L., Angulo N., Marcus S., Sterling C., Maguire J.H. Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi transmission in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2009, 49:1667-1674.
18. Berrebi A., Bardou M., Bessieres M.H., Nowakowska D., Castagno R., Rolland M., Wallon M., Franck J., Bongain A., Monnier-Barbarino P., Assouline C., Cassaing S. Outcome for children infected with congenital toxoplasmosis in the first trimester and with normal ultrasound findings: a study of 36 cases. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 2007, 135:53-57.
19. Biggar R.J., Lee T.H., Wen L., Broadhead R., Kumwenda N., Taha T.E., Busch M.P. The role of transplacental microtransfusions of maternal lymphocytes in HIV transmission to newborns. AIDS 2008, 22:2251-2256.
20. Billot C., Torrico F., Carlier Y. Cost effectiveness study of a control program of congenital Chagas disease in Bolivia. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2005, 38(Suppl. 2):108-113.
21. Bittencourt A.L. Congenital Chagas disease. Am. J. Dis. Child 1976, 130:97-103.
22. Bittencourt A.L. Possible risk factors for vertical transmission of Chagas' disease. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 1992, 34:403-408.
23. Bittencourt A.L., Rodrigues de Freitas L.A., Galvao de Araujo M.O., Jacomo K. Pneumonitis in congenital Chagas' disease. A study of ten cases. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1981, 30:38-42.
24. Blanco S.B., Segura E.L., Cura E.N., Chuit R., Tulian L., Flores I., Garbarino G., Villalonga J.F., Gurtler R.E. Congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi: an operational outline for detecting and treating infected infants in north-western Argentina. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2000, 5:293-301.
25. Boehme C.C., Hain U., Novosel A., Eichenlaub S., Fleischmann E., Loscher T. Congenital visceral leishmaniasis. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2006, 12:359-360.
26. Bogdan C., Schonian G., Banuls A.L., Hide M., Pratlong F., Lorenz E., Rollinghoff M., Mertens R. Visceral leishmaniasis in a German child who had never entered a known endemic area: case report and review of the literature. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2001, 32:302-306.
27. Boughattas S., Ben-Abdallah R., Siala E., Souissi O., Aoun K., Bouratbine A. Direct genotypic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii strains associated with congenital toxoplasmosis in Tunisia (North Africa). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2010, 82:1041-1046.
28. Breugelmans M., Naessens A., Foulon W. Prevention of toxoplasmosis during pregnancy-an epidemiologic survey over 22 consecutive years. J. Perinat. Med. 2004, 32:211-214.
29. Briand V., Cottrell G., Massougbodji A., Cot M. Intermittent preventive treatment for the prevention of malaria during pregnancy in high transmission areas. Malar. J. 2007, 6:160.
30. Brutus L., Castillo H., Bernal C., Salas N.A., Schneider D., Santalla J.A., Chippaux J.P. Detectable Trypanosoma cruzi parasitemia during pregnancy and delivery as a risk factor for congenital Chagas disease. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2010, 83:1044-1047.
31. Brutus L., Schneider D., Postigo J., Delgado W., Mollinedo S., Chippaux J.P. Evidence of congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in a vector-free area of Bolivia. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 101:1159-1160.
32. Buekens P., Almendares O., Carlier Y., Dumonteil E., Eberhard M., Gamboa-Leon R., James M., Padilla N., Wesson D., Xiong X. Mother-to-child transmission of Chagas' disease in North America: why don't we do more?. Matern. Child Health J. 2008, 12:283-286.
33. Burgos J.M., Altcheh J., Bisio M., Duffy T., Valadares H.M., Seidenstein M.E., Piccinali R., Freitas J.M., Levin M.J., Macchi L., Macedo A.M., Freilij H., Schijman A.G. Direct molecular profiling of minicircle signatures and lineages of Trypanosoma cruzi bloodstream populations causing congenital Chagas disease. Int. J. Parasitol. 2007, 37:1319-1327.
34. Burgos J.M., Altcheh J., Petrucelli N., Bisio M., Levin M.J., Freilij H., Schijman A.G. Molecular diagnosis and treatment monitoring of congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi to twins of a triplet delivery. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2009, 65:58-61.
35. Burke J. La Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine 2000, FOMETRO ASBL Fonds Médical Tropical, p. 39.
36. Candolfi E., Pastor R., Huber R., Filisetti D., Villard O. IgG avidity assay firms up the diagnosis of acute toxoplasmosis on the first serum sample in immunocompetent pregnant women. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2007, 58:83-88.
37. Carlier Y., Torrico F. Congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi: from mechanisms of transmission to strategies for diagnosis and control. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2003, 6:767-771.
38. Carlier Y., Torrico F., Sosa-Estani S., Russomando G., Luquetti L., Freilij H., Albajar Vinas P. Congenital Chagas disease: recommendations for diagnosis, treatment and control of newborns, siblings and pregnant women. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2011, 5:e1250.
39. Carlier Y. Factors and mechanisms involved in the transmission and development of congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2005, 38(Suppl. 2):105-107.
40. Carlier Y., Truyens C. Influence of maternal infection on offspring resistance towards parasites. Parasitol. Today 1995, 11:94-99.
41. Carlier Y., Truyens C. Maternal-Fetal Transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi. American trypanosomiasis-Chagas disease. One hundred years of research 2010, 539-581. Elsevier, London, UK/Burlington, MA, USA. J. Telleria, M. Tibayrenc (Eds.).
42. Carlier Y., Pinto Dias J.C., Luquetti A.O., Hontebeyrie M., Torrico F., Truyens C. Trypanosomiase américaine ou maladie de Chagas. Encycl Méd Chir, Maladies Infectieuses 2002, Elsevier SAS, Paris, pp. 8-505-A-20, 21 p. Editions Scientifiques et Médicales (Ed.).
43. Chapey E., Wallon M., Debize G., Rabilloud F., Peyron M. Diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis by using a whole-blood gamma interferon release assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2010, 48:41-45.
44. Chaturvedi P., Advani B., Khan A.A., Harinath B.C., Gawdi A. Congenital filarial lymphoedema. Indian J. Pediatr. 1991, 58:378-380.
45. Chippaux J.P., Clavijo A.N., Santalla J.A., Postigo J.R., Schneider D., Brutus L. Antibody drop in newborns congenitally infected by Trypanosoma cruzi treated with benznidazole. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2010, 15:87-93.
46. Ciardelli L., Meroni V., Avanzini M.A., Bollani L., Tinelli C., Garofoli F., Gasparoni A., Stronati M. Early and accurate diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2008, 27:125-129.
47. Coll O., Menendez C., Botet F., Dayal R., Carbonell-Estrany X., Weisman L.E., Anceschi M.M., Greenough A., Gibss R.S., Ville Y. Treatment and prevention of malaria in pregnancy and newborn. J. Perinat. Med. 2008, 36:15-29.
48. Conroy A.L., McDonald C.R., Silver K.L., Liles W.C., Kain K.C. Complement activation: a critical mediator of adverse fetal outcomes in placental malaria?. Trends Parasitol. 2011, 27:294-299.
49. Conway D.J. Molecular epidemiology of malaria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2007, 20:188-204.
50. Cook A.J., Gilbert R.E., Buffolano W., Zufferey J., Petersen E., Jenum P.A., Foulon W., Semprini A.E., Dunn D.T. Sources of toxoplasma infection in pregnant women: European multicentre case-control study. BMJ 2000, 321:142-147.
51. Corrales R.M., Mora M.C., Negrette O.S., Diosque P., Lacunza D., Virreira M., Breniere S.F., Basombrio M.A. Congenital Chagas disease involves Trypanosoma cruzi sub-lineage IId in the northwestern province of Salta, Argentina. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2009, 9:278-282.
52. Correa D., Canedo-Solares I., Ortiz-Alegria L.B., Caballero-Ortega H., Rico-Torres C.P. Congenital and acquired toxoplasmosis: diversity and role of antibodies in different compartments of the host. Parasite Immunol. 2007, 29:651-660.
53. Cumberland P., Shulman C.E., Maple P.A., Bulmer J.N., Dorman E.K., Kawuondo K., Marsh K., Cutts F.T. Maternal HIV infection and placental malaria reduce transplacental antibody transfer and tetanus antibody levels in newborns in Kenya. J. Infect. Dis. 2007, 196:550-557.
54. Czeizel E., Hancsok M., Palkovich I., Janko M., Zoltai N. Possible relation between fetal death and E. histolytica infection of the mother. Preliminary report. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1966, 96:264-266.
55. Dauby N., Alonso-Vega C., Suarez E., Flores A., Hermann E., Cordova M., Tellez T., Torrico F., Truyens C., Carlier Y. Maternal infection with Trypanosoma cruzi and congenital Chagas disease induce a trend to a type 1 polarization of infant immune responses to vaccines. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2009, 3:e571.
56. De Rissio A.M., Riarte A.R., Garcia M.M., Esteva M.I., Quaglino M., Ruiz A.M. Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection efficacy of its monitoring in an urban reference health center in a non-endemic area of Argentina. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2010, 82:838-845.
57. Del Punta V., Gulletta M., Matteelli A., Spinoni V., Regazzoli A., Castelli F. Congenital Plasmodium vivax malaria mimicking neonatal sepsis: a case report. Malar. J. 2010, 9:63.
58. Deloron P., Bertin G., Briand V., Massougbodji A., Cot M. Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine intermittent preventive treatment for malaria during pregnancy. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16:1666-1670.
59. Desai M., ter Kuile F.O., Nosten F., McGready R., Asamoa K., Brabin B., Newman R.D. Epidemiology and burden of malaria in pregnancy. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2007, 7:93-104.
60. Di Mario S., Basevi V., Gagliotti C., Spettoli D., Gori G., D'Amico R., Magrini N. Prenatal education for congenital toxoplasmosis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2009, CD006171.
61. Diez C.N., Manattini S., Zanuttini J.C., Bottasso O., Marcipar I. The value of molecular studies for the diagnosis of congenital Chagas disease in northeastern Argentina. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2008, 78:624-627.
62. Dolcini G.L., Solana M.E., Andreani G., Celentano A.M., Parodi L.M., Donato A.M., Elissondo N., Gonzalez Cappa S.M., Giavedoni L.D., Martinez P.L. Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas' disease agent) reduces HIV-1 replication in human placenta. Retrovirology 2008, 5:53.
63. Duaso J., Rojo G., Cabrera G., Galanti N., Bosco C., Maya J.D., Morello A., Kemmerling U. Trypanosoma cruzi induces tissue disorganization and destruction of chorionic villi in an ex vivo infection model of human placenta. Placenta 2010, 31:705-711.
64. Egan C.E., Sukhumavasi W., Butcher B.A., Denkers E.Y. Functional aspects of Toll-like receptor/MyD88 signalling during protozoan infection: focus on Toxoplasma gondii. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2009, 156:17-24.
65. Elbez-Rubinstein A., Ajzenberg D., Darde M.L., Cohen R., Dumetre A., Yera H., Gondon E., Janaud J.C., Thulliez P. Congenital toxoplasmosis and reinfection during pregnancy: case report, strain characterization, experimental model of reinfection, and review. J. Infect. Dis. 2009, 199:280-285.
66. Eltoum I.A., Zijlstra E.E., Ali M.S., Ghalib H.W., Satti M.M., Eltoum B., El-Hassan A.M. Congenital kala-azar and leishmaniasis in the placenta. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1992, 46:57-62.
67. Evengard B., Petersson K., Engman M.L., Wiklund S., Ivarsson S.A., Tear-Fahnehjelm K., Forsgren M., Gilbert R., Malm G. Low incidence of toxoplasma infection during pregnancy and in newborns in Sweden. Epidemiol. Infect. 2001, 127:121-127.
68. Falade C., Mokuolu O., Okafor H., Orogade A., Falade A., Adedoyin O., Oguonu T., Aisha M., Hamer D.H., Callahan M.V. Epidemiology of congenital malaria in Nigeria: a multi-centre study. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2007, 12:1279-1287.
69. Falla A., Herrera C., Fajardo A., Montilla M., Vallejo G.A., Guhl F. Haplotype identification within Trypanosoma cruzi I in Colombian isolates from several reservoirs, vectors and humans. Acta Trop. 2009, 110:15-21.
70. Fatoohi A.F., Cozon G.J., Wallon M., Kahi S., Gay-Andrieu F., Greenland T., Peyron F. Cellular immunity to Toxoplasma gondii in congenitally infected newborns and immunocompetent infected hosts. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2003, 22:181-184.
71. Fernandez-Aguilar S., Lambot M.A., Torrico F., Alonso-Vega C., Cordoba M., Suarez E., Noel J.C., Carlier Y. Placental lesions in human Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2005, 38(Suppl. 2):84-86.
72. Ferro E.A., Mineo J.R., Ietta F., Bechi N., Romagnoli R., Silva D.A., Sorda G., Bevilacqua E., Paulesu L.R. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor is up-regulated in human first-trimester placenta stimulated by soluble antigen of Toxoplasma gondii, resulting in increased monocyte adhesion on villous explants. Am. J. Pathol. 2008, 172:50-58.
73. Figueiro-Filho E.A., Duarte G., El-Beitune P., Quintana S.M., Maia T.L. Visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar) and pregnancy. Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol. 2004, 12:31-40.
74. Filisetti D., Cocquerelle V., Pfaff A., Villard O., Candolfi E. Placental testing for Toxoplasma gondii is not useful to diagnose congenital toxoplasmosis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2010, 29:665-667.
75. Fonticiella M., Lopez-Negrete L., Prieto A., Garcia-Hernandez J.B., Orense M., Fernandez-Diego J., Gomez J.L. Congenital intracranial filariasis: a case report. Pediatr. Radiol. 1995, 25:171-172.
76. Foulon W., Pinon J.M., Stray-Pedersen B., Pollak A., Lappalainen M., Decoster A., Villena I., Jenum P.A., Hayde M., Naessens A. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: a multicenter evaluation of different diagnostic parameters. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1999, 181:843-847.
77. Foulon W., Villena I., Stray-Pedersen B., Decoster A., Lappalainen M., Pinon J.M., Jenum P.A., Hedman K., Naessens A. Treatment of toxoplasmosis during pregnancy: a multicenter study of impact on fetal transmission and children's sequelae at age 1 year. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1999, 180:410-415.
78. Freeman K., Oakley L., Pollak A., Buffolano W., Petersen E., Semprini A.E., Salt A., Gilbert R. Association between congenital toxoplasmosis and preterm birth, low birthweight and small for gestational age birth. BJOG 2005, 112:31-37.
79. Freilij H., Altcheh J. Congenital Chagas' disease: diagnostic and clinical aspects. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1995, 21:551-555.
80. Freilij H., Altcheh J., Muchinik G. Perinatal human immunodeficiency virus infection and congenital Chagas' disease. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 1995, 14:161-162.
81. Fricker-Hidalgo H., Brenier-Pinchart M.P., Schaal J.P., Equy V., Bost-Bru C., Pelloux H. Value of Toxoplasma gondii detection in one hundred thirty-three placentas for the diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2007, 26:845-846.
82. Fuentes I., Rubio J.M., Ramirez C., Alvar J. Genotypic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii strains associated with human toxoplasmosis in Spain: direct analysis from clinical samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2001, 39:1566-1570.
83. Gamble C., Ekwaru P.J., Garner P., ter Kuile F.O. Insecticide-treated nets for the prevention of malaria in pregnancy: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. PLoS Med. 2007, 4:e107.
84. Garcia-Lloret M.I., Winkler-Lowen B., Guilbert L.J. Monocytes adhering by LFA-1 to placental syncytiotrophoblasts induce local apoptosis via release of TNF-alpha. A model for hematogenous initiation of placental inflammations. J. Leukoc. Biol. 2000, 68:903-908.
85. Garner P., Gulmezoglu A.M. Drugs for preventing malaria in pregnant women. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2006, CD000169.
86. Garweg J.G., Scherrer J., Wallon M., Kodjikian L., Peyron F. Reactivation of ocular toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. BJOG 2005, 112:241-242.
87. Gilbert R., Dezateux C. Newborn screening for congenital toxoplasmosis: feasible, but benefits are not established. Arch. Dis. Child 2006, 91:629-631.
88. Gilbert R.E., Peckham C.S. Congenital toxoplasmosis in the United Kingdom: to screen or not to screen?. J. Med. Screen. 2002, 9:135-141.
89. Gollub E.L., Leroy V., Gilbert R., Chene G., Wallon M. Effectiveness of health education on Toxoplasma-related knowledge, behaviour, and risk of seroconversion in pregnancy. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 2008, 136:137-145.
90. Gras L., Wallon M., Pollak A., Cortina-Borja M., Evengard B., Hayde M., Petersen E., Gilbert R. Association between prenatal treatment and clinical manifestations of congenital toxoplasmosis in infancy: a cohort study in 13 European centres. Acta Paediatr. 2005, 94:1721-1731.
91. Gratzl R., Sodeck G., Platzer P., Jager W., Graf J., Pollak A., Thalhammer T. Treatment of toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: concentrations of spiramycin and neospiramycin in maternal serum and amniotic fluid. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2002, 21:12-16.
92. Guerina N.G., Hsu H.W., Meissner H.C., Maguire J.H., Lynfield R., Stechenberg B., Abroms I., Pasternack M.S., Hoff R., Eaton R.B. Neonatal serologic screening and early treatment for congenital Toxoplasma gondii infection. The New England Regional Toxoplasma Working Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 1994, 330:1858-1863.
93. Guglietta S., Beghetto E., Spadoni A., Buffolano W., Del P.P., Gargano N. Age-dependent impairment of functional helper T cell responses to immunodominant epitopes of Toxoplasma gondii antigens in congenitally infected individuals. Microbes Infect. 2007, 9:127-133.
94. Gurtler R.E., Segura E.L., Cohen J.E. Congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in Argentina. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2003, 9:29-32.
95. Hafalla J.C., Silvie O., Matuschewski K. Cell biology and immunology of malaria. Immunol. Rev. 2011, 240:297-316.
96. Hartgers F.C., Obeng B.B., Voskamp A., Larbi I.A., Amoah A.S., Luty A.J., Boakye D., Yazdanbakhsh M. Enhanced Toll-like receptor responsiveness associated with mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in Plasmodium falciparum-infected children. Infect. Immun. 2008, 76:5149-5157.
97. Hermann E., Truyens C., Alonso-Vega C., Even J., Rodriguez P., Berthe A., Gonzalez-Merino E., Torrico F., Carlier Y. Human fetuses are able to mount an adultlike CD8 T-cell response. Blood 2002, 100:2153-2158.
98. Hermann E., Truyens C., Alonso-Vega C., Rodriguez P., Berthe A., Torrico F., Carlier Y. Congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi is associated with maternal enhanced parasitemia and decreased production of interferon-gamma in response to parasite antigens. J. Infect. Dis. 2004, 189:1274-1281.
99. Ismail M.R., Ordi J., Menendez C., Ventura P.J., Aponte J.J., Kahigwa E., Hirt R., Cardesa A., Alonso P.L. Placental pathology in malaria: a histological, immunohistochemical, and quantitative study. Hum. Pathol. 2000, 31:85-93.
100. Jackson Y., Myers C., Diana A., Marti H.P., Wolff H., Chappuis F., Loutan L., Gervaix A. Congenital transmission of Chagas disease in Latin American immigrants in Switzerland. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2009, 15:601-603.
101. Jafari-Guemouri S., Ndam N.T., Bertin G., Renart E., Sow S., Le Hesran J.Y., Deloron P. Demonstration of a high level of parasite population homology by quantification of Plasmodium falciparum alleles in matched peripheral, placental, and umbilical cord blood samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2005, 43:2980-2983.
102. Jauniaux E., Gulbis B., Burton G.J. The human first trimester gestational sac limits rather than facilitates oxygen transfer to the foetus-a review. Placenta 2003, 24(Suppl. A):S86-S93.
103. Jenum P.A., Stray-Pedersen B., Melby K.K., Kapperud G., Whitelaw A., Eskild A., Eng J. Incidence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in 35,940 pregnant women in Norway and pregnancy outcome for infected women. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1998, 36:2900-2906.
104. Jercic M.I., Mercado R., Villarroel R. Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection in neonates and infants from two regions of Chile where Chagas' disease is endemic. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2010, 48:3824-3826.
105. Jonsson A.M., Uzunel M., Gotherstrom C., Papadogiannakis N., Westgren M. Maternal microchimerism in human fetal tissues. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2008, 198:325-326.
106. Juliano P.B., Blotta M.H., Altemani A.M. ICAM-1 is overexpressed by villous trophoblasts in placentitis. Placenta 2006, 27:750-757.
107. Kamwendo D.D., Dzinjalamala F.K., Snounou G., Kanjala M.C., Mhango C.G., Molyneux M.E., Rogerson S.J. Plasmodium falciparum: PCR detection and genotyping of isolates from peripheral, placental, and cord blood of pregnant Malawian women and their infants. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2002, 96:145-149.
108. Kasper D.C., Sadeghi K., Prusa A.R., Reischer G.H., Kratochwill K., Forster-Waldl E., Gerstl N., Hayde M., Pollak A., Herkner K.R. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction for the accurate detection of Toxoplasma gondii in amniotic fluid. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2009, 63:10-15.
109. Kassberger F., Birkenmaier A., Khattab A., Kremsner P.G., Klinkert M.Q. PCR typing of Plasmodium falciparum in matched peripheral, placental and umbilical cord blood. Parasitol. Res. 2002, 88:1073-1079.
110. Khonde N., Pepin J., Niyonsenga T., De W.P. Familial aggregation of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense trypanosomiasis in a very high incidence community in Zaire. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1997, 91:521-524.
111. Kieffer F., Rigourd V., Ikounga P., Bessieres B., Magny J.F., Thulliez P. Disseminated congenital toxoplasma infection with a type II strain. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2011, 30:813-815.
112. Koga K., Mor G. Toll-like receptors at the maternal-fetal interface in normal pregnancy and pregnancy disorders. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 2010, 63:587-600.
113. Kudo Y., Boyd C.A., Spyropoulou I., Redman C.W., Takikawa O., Katsuki T., Hara T., Ohama K., Sargent I.L. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase: distribution and function in the developing human placenta. J. Reprod. Immunol. 2004, 61:87-98.
114. Lago E.G., Neto E.C., Melamed J., Rucks A.P., Presotto C., Coelho J.C., Parise C., Vargas P.R., Goldbeck A.S., Fiori R.M. Congenital toxoplasmosis: late pregnancy infections detected by neonatal screening and maternal serological testing at delivery. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 2007, 21:525-531.
115. Leiby D.A., Fucci M.H., Stumpf R.J. Trypanosoma cruzi in a low- to moderate-risk blood donor population: seroprevalence and possible congenital transmission. Transfusion 1999, 39:310-315.
116. Lesko C.R., Arguin P.M., Newman R.D. Congenital malaria in the United States: a review of cases from 1966 to 2005. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2007, 161:1062-1067.
117. Levy O. Innate immunity of the newborn: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2007, 7:379-390.
118. Lindner A.K., Priotto G. The unknown risk of vertical transmission in sleeping sickness-a literature review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2010, 4:e783.
119. Lujan C.D., Triquell M.F., Sembaj A., Guerrero C.E., Fretes R.E. Trypanosoma cruzi: productive infection is not allowed by chorionic villous explant from normal human placenta in vitro. Exp. Parasitol. 2004, 108:176-181.
120. Luquetti A.O., Ferreira A.W., Oliveira R.A., Tavares S.B., Rassi A., Dias J.C., Prata A. Congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in Brazil: estimation of prevalence based on preliminary data of national serological surveys in children under 5 years old and other sources. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2005, 38(Suppl. 2):24-26.
121. Macedo A., Segatto M. Implications of Trypanosoma cruzi intraspecific diversity in the pathogenesis of Chagas disease. American Trypanosomiasis-Chagas Disease. One Hundred Years of Research 2010, 489-522. Elsevier, London, UK/Burlington, MA, USA. 1st ed. J. Telleria, M. Tibayrenc (Eds.).
122. Machado A.S., Andrade G.M., Januario J.N., Fernandes M.D., Carneiro A.C., Carneiro M., Carellos E.V., Romanelli R.M., Vasconcelos-Santos D.V., Vitor R.W. IgG and IgM western blot assay for diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 2010, 105:757-761.
123. Magi B., Migliorini L. Western blotting for the diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. New Microbiol. 2011, 34:93-95.
124. Malhotra I., Mungai P., Muchiri E., Kwiek J.J., Meshnick S.R., King C.L. Umbilical cord-blood infections with Plasmodium falciparum malaria are acquired antenatally in Kenya. J. Infect. Dis. 2006, 194:176-183.
125. Marchant A., Goldman M. T cell-mediated immune responses in human newborns: ready to learn?. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2005, 141:10-18.
126. Mayengue P.I., Rieth H., Khattab A., Issifou S., Kremsner P.G., Klinkert M.Q., Ntoumi F. Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum infections and multiplicity of infection in matched peripheral, placental and umbilical cord blood samples from Gabonese women. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2004, 9:949-958.
127. Mayer J.P., Biancardi M., Altcheh J., Freilij H., Weinke T., Liesenfeld O. Congenital infections with Trypanosoma cruzi or Toxoplasma gondii are associated with decreased serum concentrations of interferon-gamma and interleukin-18 but increased concentrations of interleukin-10. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 2010, 104:485-492.
128. McCall M.B., Netea M.G., Hermsen C.C., Jansen T., Jacobs L., Golenbock D., van der Ven A.J., Sauerwein R.W. Plasmodium falciparum infection causes proinflammatory priming of human TLR responses. J. Immunol. 2007, 179:162-171.
129. McLeod R., Boyer K., Karrison T., Kasza K., Swisher C., Roizen N., Jalbrzikowski J., Remington J., Heydemann P., Noble A.G., Mets M., Holfels E., Withers S., Latkany P., Meier P. Outcome of treatment for congenital toxoplasmosis 1981-2004: the National Collaborative Chicago-Based, Congenital Toxoplasmosis Study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2006, 42:1383-1394.
130. McLeod R., Kieffer F., Sautter M., Hosten T., Pelloux H. Why prevent, diagnose and treat congenital toxoplasmosis?. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 2009, 104:320-344.
131. McLeod R., Mack D.G., Boyer K., Mets M., Roizen N., Swisher C., Patel D., Beckmann E., Vitullo D., Johnson D. Phenotypes and functions of lymphocytes in congenital toxoplasmosis. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 1990, 116:623-635.
132. Melamed J., Eckert G.U., Spadoni V.S., Lago E.G., Uberti F. Ocular manifestations of congenital toxoplasmosis. Eye (Lond.) 2010, 24:528-534.
133. Melis G.B., Orru M., Uras R., Etzi R., Marotto M.F., Zedda P., Angioni S., Paoletti A.M. Chorioamnionitis. J. Chemother. 2007, 19(Suppl. 2):17-19.
134. Menendez C., Bardaji A., Sigauque B., Romagosa C., Sanz S., Serra-Casas E., Macete E., Berenguera A., David C., Dobano C., Naniche D., Mayor A., Ordi J., Mandomando I., Aponte J.J., Mabunda S., Alonso P.L. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of intermittent preventive treatment in pregnant women in the context of insecticide treated nets delivered through the antenatal clinic. PLoS ONE 2008, 3:e1934.
135. Menendez C., Mayor A. Congenital malaria: the least known consequence of malaria in pregnancy. Semin. Fetal Neonatal. Med. 2007, 12:207-213.
136. Montoya J.G. Laboratory diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis. J. Infect. Dis. 2002, 185(Suppl. 1):S73-S82.
137. Montoya J.G., Remington J.S. Management of Toxoplasma gondii infection during pregnancy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 47:554-566.
138. Mora M.C., Sanchez N.O., Marco D., Barrio A., Ciaccio M., Segura M.A., Basombrio M.A. Early diagnosis of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection using PCR, hemoculture, and capillary concentration, as compared with delayed serology. J. Parasitol. 2005, 91:1468-1473.
139. Moretti E., Basso B., Castro I., Carrizo P.M., Chaul M., Barbieri G., Canal F.D., Sartori M.J., Carrizo P.R. Chagas' disease: study of congenital transmission in cases of acute maternal infection. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2005, 38:53-55.
140. Moya P.R., Villagra L., Risco J. Congenital Chagas disease: anatomopathological findings in the placenta and umbilical cord. Rev. Fac. Cienc. Med. Cordoba 1979, 37:21-27.
141. Munoz J., Coll O., Juncosa T., Verges M., del P.M., Fumado V., Bosch J., Posada E.J., Hernandez S., Fisa R., Boguna J.M., Gallego M., Sanz S., Portus M., Gascon J. Prevalence and vertical transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi infection among pregnant Latin American women attending 2 maternity clinics in Barcelona, Spain. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2009, 48:1736-1740.
142. Mwaniki M.K., Talbert A.W., Mturi F.N., Berkley J.A., Kager P., Marsh K., Newton C.R. Congenital and neonatal malaria in a rural Kenyan district hospital: an eight-year analysis. Malar. J. 2010, 9:313.
143. Mwapasa V., Rogerson S.J., Molyneux M.E., Abrams E.T., Kamwendo D.D., Lema V.M., Tadesse E., Chaluluka E., Wilson P.E., Meshnick S.R. The effect of Plasmodium falciparum malaria on peripheral and placental HIV-1 RNA concentrations in pregnant Malawian women. AIDS 2004, 18:1051-1059.
144. Myatt L., Cui X. Oxidative stress in the placenta. Histochem. Cell Biol. 2004, 122:369-382.
145. Naessens A. Screening for toxoplasmosis during pregnancy: the situation in Belgium. Arch. Pediatr. 2003, 10(Suppl. 1):18.
146. Nanaev A.K., Kosanke G., Kemp B., Frank H.G., Huppertz B., Kaufmann P. The human placenta is encircled by a ring of smooth muscle cells. Placenta 2000, 21:122-125.
147. Nisida N., Amato V., Braz L.M., Duarte M.I., Umezawa E.S. A survey of congenital Chagas' disease, carried out at three health institutions in Sao Paulo City, Brazil. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 1999, 41:305-311.
148. Nowakowska D., Colon I., Remington J.S., Grigg M., Golab E., Wilczynski J., Sibley L.D. Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii by multiplex PCR and peptide-based serological testing of samples from infants in Poland diagnosed with congenital toxoplasmosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2006, 44:1382-1389.
149. Oduwole O.A., Ejezie G.C., Odey F.A., Oringanje C.M., Nwakanma D., Bello S., Oriero E., Okebe J., Alaribe A.A., Etuk S., Meremikwu M. Congenital malaria in Calabar Nigeria: the molecular perspective. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2011, 84:386-389.
150. Okafor U.H., Oguonu T., Onah H.E. Risk factors associated with congenital malaria in Enugu South Eastern Nigeria. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2006, 26:612-616.
151. Okumura M., Aparecida d.S., Camargo V., Schultz M.E., Zugaib R.M. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital Chagas' disease (American trypanosomiasis). Prenat. Diagn. 2004, 24:179-181.
152. Oliveira J.G., Silva N.M., Santos A.A., Souza M.A., Ferreira G.L., Mineo J.R., Ferro E.A. BeWo trophoblasts are unable to control replication of Toxoplasma gondii, even in the presence of exogenous IFN-gamma. Placenta 2006, 27:691-698.
153. OPS, 2006. Estimacion Cuantitativa de la Enfermedad de Chagas en las Americas. Organizacion Panamericana de la Salud. Pan American Health Organization OPS/HDM/CD/425-06, Washington (DC).
154. Orton L.C., Omari A.A. Drugs for treating uncomplicated malaria in pregnant women. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2008, CD004912.
155. Ouaissi M.A., Afchain D., Capron A., Grimaud J.A. Fibronectin receptors on Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes and their biological function. Nature 1984, 308:380-382.
156. Pagliano P., Carannante N., Rossi M., Gramiccia M., Gradoni L., Faella F.S., Gaeta G.B. Visceral leishmaniasis in pregnancy: a case series and a systematic review of the literature. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2005, 55:229-233.
157. Pappas G., Roussos N., Falagas M.E. Toxoplasmosis snapshots: global status of Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence and implications for pregnancy and congenital toxoplasmosis. Int. J. Parasitol. 2009, 39:1385-1394.
158. Parazzini F. Elective caesarean-section versus vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomised clinical trial. The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Lancet 1999, 353:1035-1039.
159. Paul M., Petersen E., Szczapa J. Prevalence of congenital Toxoplasma gondii infection among newborns from the Poznan region of Poland: validation of a new combined enzyme immunoassay for Toxoplasma gondii-specific immunoglobulin A and immunoglobulin M antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2001, 39:1912-1916.
160. Pavia P.X., Montilla M., Florez C., Herrera G., Ospina J.M., Manrique F., Nicholls R.S., Puerta C. The first case of congenital Chagas' disease analyzed by AP-PCR in Colombia. Biomedica 2009, 29:513-522.
161. Pepin J., Guern C., Milord F., Ethier L., Bokelo M., Schechter P.J. The use of difluoromethylornithine in congenital trypanosomiasis due to Trypanosoma brucei-gambiense. Med. Trop. (Mars) 1989, 49:83-85.
162. Pereira L.H., Pellegrino J., Coelho P.M. On the problem of congenital schistosomiasis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1972, 66:802-803.
163. Perrault S.D., Hajek J., Zhong K., Owino S.O., Sichangi M., Smith G., Shi Y.P., Moore J.M., Kain K.C. Human immunodeficiency virus co-infection increases placental parasite density and transplacental malaria transmission in Western Kenya. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 80:119-125.
164. Peters P.J., Thigpen M.C., Parise M.E., Newman R.D. Safety and toxicity of sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine: implications for malaria prevention in pregnancy using intermittent preventive treatment. Drug Saf. 2007, 30:481-501.
165. Petersen E. Protozoan and helminth infections in pregnancy. Short-term and long-term implications of transmission of infection from mother to foetus. Parasitology 2007, 134:1855-1862.
166. Peyron F., Garweg J.G., Wallon M., Descloux E., Rolland M., Barth J. Long-term impact of treated congenital toxoplasmosis on quality of life and visual performance. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2011.
167. Peyron F., Lobry J.R., Musset K., Ferrandiz J., Gomez-Marin J.E., Petersen E., Meroni V., Rausher B., Mercier C., Picot S., Cesbron-Delauw M.F. Serotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in chronically infected pregnant women: predominance of type II in Europe and types I and III in Colombia (South America). Microbes Infect. 2006, 8:2333-2340.
168. Pfaff A.W., Georges S., Abou-Bacar A., Letscher-Bru V., Klein J.P., Mousli M., Candolfi E. Toxoplasma gondii regulates ICAM-1 mediated monocyte adhesion to trophoblasts. Immunol. Cell Biol. 2005, 83:483-489.
169. Pfaff A.W., Villard O., Klein J.P., Mousli M., Candolfi E. Regulation of Toxoplasma gondii multiplication in BeWo trophoblast cells: cross-regulation of nitric oxide production and polyamine biosynthesis. Int. J. Parasitol. 2005, 35:1569-1576.
170. Phan L., Kasza K., Jalbrzikowski J., Noble A.G., Latkany P., Kuo A., Mieler W., Meyers S., Rabiah P., Boyer K., Swisher C., Mets M., Roizen N., Cezar S., Remington J., Meier P., McLeod R. Longitudinal study of new eye lesions in treated congenital toxoplasmosis. Ophthalmology 2008, 115:553-559.
171. PrabhuDas M., Adkins B., Gans H., King C., Levy O., Ramilo O., Siegrist C.A. Challenges in infant immunity: implications for responses to infection and vaccines. Nat. Immunol. 2011, 12:189-194.
172. Prigione I., Chiesa S., Taverna P., Ceccarelli R., Frulio R., Morandi F., Bocca P., Cesbron-Delauw M.F., Pistoia V. T cell mediated immune responses to Toxoplasma gondii in pregnant women with primary toxoplasmosis. Microbes Infect. 2006, 8:552-560.
173. Rabilloud M., Wallon M., Peyron F. In utero and at birth diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: use of likelihood ratios for clinical management. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2010, 29:421-425.
174. Raimundo S.M., Massad E., Yang H.M. Modelling congenital transmission of Chagas' disease. Biosystems 2010, 99:215-222.
175. Rassi A., Rassi A., Marin-Neto J.A. Chagas disease. Lancet 2010, 375:1388-1402.
176. Redline R.W. Inflammatory responses in the placenta and umbilical cord. Semin. Fetal Neonatal. Med. 2006, 11:296-301.
177. Remington J.S., McLeod R., Thilliez P., Desmonts G. Toxoplasmosis. Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant 2006, 947-1091. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia. 6th ed. J.S. Remington, J.O. Klein, C.B. Wilson, C. Baker (Eds.).
178. Robert-Gangneux F., Commerce V., Tourte-Schaefer C., Dupouy-Camet J. Performance of a Western blot assay to compare mother and newborn anti-Toxoplasma antibodies for the early neonatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 1999, 18:648-654.
179. Robert-Gangneux F., Dupretz P., Yvenou C., Quinio D., Poulain P., Guiguen C., Gangneux J.P. Clinical relevance of placenta examination for the diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2010, 29:33-38.
180. Rocha G., Martins A., Gama G., Brandao F., Atouguia J. Possible cases of sexual and congenital transmission of sleeping sickness. Lancet 2004, 363:247.
181. Rogerson S.J., Menendez C. Treatment and prevention of malaria in pregnancy: opportunities and challenges. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 2006, 4:687-702.
182. Rogerson S.J., Mwapasa V., Meshnick S.R. Malaria in pregnancy: linking immunity and pathogenesis to prevention. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 77:14-22.
183. Romero R., Gotsch F., Pineles B., Kusanovic J.P. Inflammation in pregnancy: its roles in reproductive physiology, obstetrical complications, and fetal injury. Nutr. Rev. 2007, 65:S194-S202.
184. Roser D., Nielsen H.V., Petersen E., Saugmann-Jensen P., Norgaard-Pedersen B. Congenital toxoplasmosis-a report on the Danish neonatal screening programme 1999-2007. J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 2010, 33:S241-S247.
185. Russomando G., Almiron M., Candia N., Franco L., Sanchez Z., de G.I. Implementation and evaluation of a locally sustainable system of prenatal diagnosis to detect cases of congenital Chagas disease in endemic areas of Paraguay. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2005, 38(Suppl. 2):49-54.
186. Russomando G., de Tomassone M.M., de Guillen I., Acosta N., Vera N., Almiron M., Candia N., Calcena M.F., Figueredo A. Treatment of congenital Chagas' disease diagnosed and followed up by the polymerase chain reaction. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1998, 59:487-491.
187. Rutherford R.A., McCarthy A., Sullivan M.H., Elder M.G., Polak J.M., Wharton J. Nitric oxide synthase in human placenta and umbilical cord from normal, intrauterine growth-retarded and pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Br. J. Pharmacol. 1995, 116:3099-3109.
188. Sanchez N.O., Mora M.C., Basombrio M.A. High prevalence of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection and family clustering in Salta, Argentina. Pediatrics 2005, 115:e668-e672.
189. Sartori A.M., Ibrahim K.Y., Nunes Westphalen E.V., Braz L.M., Oliveira O.C., Gakiya E., Lopes M.H., Shikanai-Yasuda M.A. Manifestations of Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) in patients with HIV/AIDS. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 2007, 101:31-50.
190. Scapellato P.G., Bottaro E.G., Rodriguez-Brieschke M.T. Mother-child transmission of Chagas disease: could coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus increase the risk?. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2009, 42:107-109.
191. Schijman A.G. Congenital Chagas disease. Congenital and Other Related Infectious Diseases of the Newborn 2007, 223-258. Elsevier. I.K. Mushahwar (Ed.).
192. Schijman A.G., Altcheh J., Burgos J.M., Biancardi M., Bisio M., Levin M.J., Freilij H. Aetiological treatment of congenital Chagas' disease diagnosed and monitored by the polymerase chain reaction. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2003, 52:441-449.
193. Schoondermark-Van de Ven E., Galama J., Camps W., Vree T., Russel F., Meuwissen J., Melchers W. Pharmacokinetics of spiramycin in the rhesus monkey: transplacental passage and distribution in tissue in the fetus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1994, 38:1922-1929.
194. Schwandt A., Williams C., Beigi R.H. Perinatal transmission of Trichomonas vaginalis: a case report. J. Reprod. Med. 2008, 53:59-61.
195. Shear H.L., Grinberg L., Gilman J., Fabry M.E., Stamatoyannopoulos G., Goldberg D.E., Nagel R.L. Transgenic mice expressing human fetal globin are protected from malaria by a novel mechanism. Blood 1998, 92:2520-2526.
196. Shi Y.E., Johansen M.V., Li F.R., Willingham A.L., Bogh H.O., Liao L.G., Han J.J., Ning C.X. An epidemiological investigation of congenital Schistosoma japonicum transmission in Hubei Province, PR China. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 2001, 32:323-325.
197. Shippey S.H., Zahn C.M., Cisar M.M., Wu T.J., Satin A.J. Use of the placental perfusion model to evaluate transplacental passage of Trypanosoma cruzi. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2005, 192:586-591.
198. Sibley L.D., Khan A., Ajioka J.W., Rosenthal B.M. Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in animals and humans. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B: Biol. Sci. 2009, 364:2749-2761.
199. Siegrist C.A. The challenges of vaccine responses in early life: selected examples. J. Comp. Pathol. 2007, 137(Suppl. 1):S4-S9.
200. Signorell L.M., Seitz D., Merkel S., Berger R., Rudin C. Cord blood screening for congenital toxoplasmosis in northwestern Switzerland, 1982-1999. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2006, 25:123-128.
201. Silveira C., Ferreira R., Muccioli C., Nussenblatt R., Belfort R. Toxoplasmosis transmitted to a newborn from the mother infected 20 years earlier. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 2003, 136:370-371.
202. Simister N.E. Placental transport of immunoglobulin G. Vaccine 2003, 21:3365-3369.
203. Singh N., Saxena A., Shrivastava R. Placental Plasmodium vivax infection and congenital malaria in central India. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 2003, 97:875-878.
204. Sosa-Estani S., Belizan J.M., Althabe F., Rubinstein A. The need of a neonatal preparation for Chagas disease. PLoS Med. 2005, 2:e387.
205. Sosa-Estani S., Cura E., Velazquez E., Yampotis C., Segura E.L. Etiological treatment of young women infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, and prevention of congenital transmission. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2009, 42:484-487.
206. Soulard V., Amadoudji Z.M., Fitting C., Ibitokou S., Oesterholt M., Luty A.J., Perrin R.X., Massougbodji A., Deloron P., Bandeira A., Fievet N. Placental malaria-associated suppression of parasite-specific immune response in neonates has no major impact on systemic CD4T cell homeostasis. Infect. Immun. 2011, 79:2801-2809.
207. Stagni L., Romano M.A., Romano A., Magli A., Briganti F., Del Pezzo M.A., Buffolano W. Prenatal screening for congenital toxoplasmosis in Campania: preliminary report on activities and results. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 2009, 104:374-377.
208. Storino R., Auger S., Caravello O., Urrutia M.I., Sanmartino M., Jorg M. Chagasic cardiopathy in endemic area versus sporadically infected patients. Rev. Saude Publica 2002, 36:755-758.
209. Svoboda M., Virreira M., Truyens C., Carlier Y. Molecular approaches for diagnosis of chagas disease and genotyping of Trypanosoma cruzi. Molecular Microbiology: Diagnostic Principles and Practice 2011, 713-725. ASM Press, Washington, DC. 2nd ed. D.E.A. Persing (Ed.).
210. Tarleton R.L. Immune system recognition of Trypanosoma cruzi. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 2007, 19:430-434.
211. Temesvari P., Kerekes A. Newborn with suppurative nasal discharge and respiratory distress. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2004, 23:282-283.
212. Thiebaut R., Leproust S., Chene G., Gilbert R. Effectiveness of prenatal treatment for congenital toxoplasmosis: a meta-analysis of individual patients' data. Lancet 2007, 369:115-122.
213. Tobian A.A., Mehlotra R.K., Malhotra I., Wamachi A., Mungai P., Koech D., Ouma J., Zimmerman P., King C.L. Frequent umbilical cord-blood and maternal-blood infections with Plasmodium falciparum, P. malariae, and P. ovale in Kenya. J. Infect. Dis. 2000, 182:558-563.
214. Torrico F., Alonso-Vega C., Suarez E., Rodriguez P., Torrico M.C., Dramaix M., Truyens C., Carlier Y. Maternal Trypanosoma cruzi infection, pregnancy outcome, morbidity, and mortality of congenitally infected and non-infected newborns in Bolivia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2004, 70:201-209.
215. Torrico F., Vega C.A., Suarez E., Tellez T., Brutus L., Rodriguez P., Torrico M.C., Schneider D., Truyens C., Carlier Y. Are maternal re-infections with Trypanosoma cruzi associated with higher morbidity and mortality of congenital Chagas disease?. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2006, 11:628-635.
216. Traub N., Hira P.R., Chintu C., Mhango C. Congenital trypanosomiasis: report of a case due to Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. East Afr. Med. J. 1978, 55:477.
217. Triolo N., Trova P., Fusco C., Le B.J. Report on l7 years of studies of human African trypanosomiasis caused by T. gambiense in children 0-6 years of age. Med. Trop. (Mars) 1985, 45:251-257.
218. Truyens C., Carlier Y. Protective host response to Trypanosoma cruzi parasite and its limitations. American Trypanosomiasis-Chagas Disease. One Hundred Years of Research 2010, 601-668. Elsevier, London, UK/Burlington, MA, USA. J. Telleria, M. Tibayrenc (Eds.).
219. Truyens C., Hermann E., Alonso-Vega C., Rodriguez P., Vekemans J., Torrico F., Carlier Y. Immune responses of non-infected neonates of mothers infected with Trypanosoma cruzi. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 2005, 38(Suppl. 2):96-100.
220. Uneke C.J. Congenital Plasmodium falciparum malaria in sub-Saharan Africa: a rarity or frequent occurrence?. Parasitol. Res. 2007, 101:835-842.
221. Uneke C.J. Impact of placental Plasmodium falciparum malaria on pregnancy and perinatal outcome in sub-Saharan Africa. II. Effects of placental malaria on perinatal outcome; malaria and HIV. Yale J. Biol. Med. 2007, 80:95-103.
222. Vekemans J., Truyens C., Torrico F., Solano M., Torrico M.C., Rodriguez P., Alonso-Vega C., Carlier Y. Maternal Trypanosoma cruzi infection upregulates capacity of uninfected neonate cells to produce pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Infect. Immun. 2000, 68:5430-5434.
223. Villena I., Ancelle T., Delmas C., Garcia P., Brezin A.P., Thulliez P., Wallon M., King L., Goulet V. Congenital toxoplasmosis in France in 2007: first results from a national surveillance system. Euro Surveill. 2010, 15.
224. Viotti R., Vigliano C., Lococo B., Alvarez M.G., Petti M., Bertocchi G., Armenti A. Side effects of benznidazole as treatment in chronic Chagas disease: fears and realities. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 2009, 7:157-163.
225. Virreira M., Alonso-Vega C., Solano M., Jijena J., Brutus L., Bustamante Z., Truyens C., Schneider D., Torrico F., Carlier Y., Svoboda M. Congenital Chagas disease in Bolivia is not associated with DNA polymorphism of Trypanosoma cruzi. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2006, 75:871-879.
226. Virreira M., Martinez S., Alonso-Vega C., Torrico F., Solano M., Torrico M.C., Parrado R., Truyens C., Carlier Y., Svoboda M. Amniotic fluid is not useful for diagnosis of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2006, 75:1082-1084.
227. Virreira M., Torrico F., Truyens C., Alonso-Vega C., Solano M., Carlier Y., Svoboda M. Comparison of polymerase chain reaction methods for reliable and easy detection of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2003, 68:574-582.
228. Virreira M., Truyens C., Alonso-Vega C., Brutus L., Jijena J., Torrico F., Carlier Y., Svoboda M. Comparison of Trypanosoma cruzi lineages and levels of parasitic DNA in infected mothers and their newborns. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 77:102-106.
229. Vottier G., Arsac M., Farnoux C., Mariani-Kurkdjian P., Baud O., Aujard Y. Congenital malaria in neonates: two case reports and review of the literature. Acta Paediatr. 2008, 97:505-508.
230. Wallon M., Franck J., Thulliez P., Huissoud C., Peyron F., Garcia-Meric P., Kieffer F. Accuracy of real-time polymerase chain reaction for Toxoplasma gondii in amniotic fluid. Obstet. Gynecol. 2010, 115:727-733.
231. Wallon M., Kodjikian L., Binquet C., Garweg J., Fleury J., Quantin C., Peyron F. Long-term ocular prognosis in 327 children with congenital toxoplasmosis. Pediatrics 2004, 113:1567-1572.
232. Wallon M., Liou C., Garner P., Peyron F. Congenital toxoplasmosis: systematic review of evidence of efficacy of treatment in pregnancy. BMJ 1999, 318:1511-1514.
233. Wilczynski J.R. Th1/Th2 cytokines balance-yin and yang of reproductive immunology. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 2005, 122:136-143.
234. Willems F., Vollstedt S., Suter M. Phenotype and function of neonatal DC. Eur. J. Immunol. 2009, 39:26-35.
235. Yadon Z.E., Schmunis G.A. Congenital Chagas disease: estimating the potential risk in the United States. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 81:927-933.
236. Yang Y., Yelavarthi K.K., Chen H.L., Pace J.L., Terranova P.F., Hunt J.S. Molecular, biochemical, and functional characteristics of tumor necrosis factor-alpha produced by human placental cytotrophoblastic cells. J. Immunol. 1993, 150:5614-5624.
237. Yavuz E., Aydin F., Seyhan A., Topuz S., Karagenc Y., Tuzlali S., Ilhan R., Iplikci A. Granulomatous villitis formed by inflammatory cells with maternal origin: a rare manifestation type of placental toxoplasmosis. Placenta 2006, 27:780-782.
238. Zaghouani H., Hoeman C.M., Adkins B. Neonatal immunity: faulty T-helpers and the shortcomings of dendritic cells. Trends Immunol. 2009, 30:585-591.
239. Zarou D.M., Lichtman H.C., Hellman L.M. The transmission of chromium-51 tagged maternal erythrocytes from mother to fetus. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1964, 88:565-571.
240. Zinchuk A., Nadraga A. Congenital visceral leishmaniasis in Ukraine: case report. Ann. Trop. Paediatr. 2010, 30:161-164.
241. Zingales B., Andrade S.G., Briones M.R., Campbell D.A., Chiari E., Fernandes O., Guhl F., Lages-Silva E., Macedo A.M., Machado C.R., Miles M.A., Romanha A.J., Sturm N.R., Tibayrenc M., Schijman A.G. A new consensus for Trypanosoma cruzi intraspecific nomenclature: second revision meeting recommends TcI to TcVI. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 2009, 104:1051-1054.