Protozoan and helminth infections in pregnancy. Short-term and long-term implications of transmission of infection from mother to foetus

Parasitology

Volumn 134, Issue 13, 2007, Pages 1855-1862

  Petersen, Eskild ^a  

^a AARHUS UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Denmark)

Author keywords

Helminth; Newborns; Pregnancy; Protective immunity; Tolerance protozoa

Indexed keywords

GAMMA INTERFERON;

ANTIGEN SPECIFICITY; CONFERENCE PAPER; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION; HELMINTHIASIS; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS B VIRUS; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE; MALARIA; MOTHER FETUS RELATIONSHIP; NONHUMAN; ONCHOCERCA VOLVULUS; PARASITE TRANSMISSION; PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM; PREGNANCY; PREGNANT WOMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTOZOAL INFECTION; RUBELLA; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; TH2 CELL; TOXOPLASMA GONDII; TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI; VIRUS INFECTION; WUCHERERIA BANCROFTI;

DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL; FEMALE; FETUS; HUMANS; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS, PARASITIC; TIME FACTORS;

CYTOMEGALOVIRUS; PROTOZOA; RUBELLA; VERMES;

EID: 35549000247     PISSN: 00311820     EISSN: 14698161     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0031182007000182     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (97)

1. Abrams, E. T., Brown, H., Chensue, S. W., Turner, G. D. H., Tadesse, E., Lema, V. M., Molyneux, M. E., Rochford, R., Meshnick, S. R. and Rogerson, S. J. (2003). Host response to malaria during pregnancy: placental monocyte recruitment is associated with elevated β chemokine expression. Journal of Immunology 170, 2759-2764.
2. Accapezzato, D., Francavilla, V., Paroli, M., Casciaro, M., Chircu, L. V., Cividini, A., Abrignani, S., Mondelli, M. U. and Barnaba, V. (2004). Hepatic expansion of a virus-specific regulatory CD8(+) T cell population in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Journal of Clinical Investigation 113, 963-972.
3. Adkins, B., Leclerc, C. and Marshall-Clarke, S. (2004). Neonatal adaptive immunity comes of age. Nature Reviews, Immunology 4, 553-564.
4. Azogue, E., Fuente C. la and Darra, C. (1985). Congenital Chagas disease in Bolivia: epidemiological aspects and pathological findings. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 176-180.
5. Baruch, D., Ma, X., Singh, H., Bi, X., Pasloske, B. and Howard, R. (1997). Identification of a region of PfEMP1 that mediates adherence of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes to CD36: conserved function with variant sequence. Blood 90, 3766-3775.
6. Bittencourt, A. L. (1992). Possible risk factors for vertical transmission of Chagas disease. Revista Instituto Medicale Tropicale Sao Paulo 34, 403-408.
7. Blacklock, B. and Gordon, R. M. (1925). Malaria infection as it occurs in late pregnancy, its relationship to labor and early infancy. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 19, 327-365.
8. Boutlis, C. S., Yeo, T. W. and Anstey, N. M. (2006). Malaria tolerance - for whom the cells toll? Trends in Parasitology 22, 371-377.
9. Buimovici, E. and Cooper, L. Z. (1985). Cell-mediated response in Rubella infections. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 7 (Suppl. 1), S123-S128.
10. Brabin, B. J. (1983). An analysis of malaria in pregnancy in Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 61, 1005-1016.
11. Brabin, B. J., Brabin, L. R., Sapau, J. and Alpers, M. P. (1988). A longitudinal study of splenomegaly in pregnancy in a malaria endemic area in papua New Guinea. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82, 677-681.
12. Brabin, B. J., Ginny, M., Sapau, J., Galme, K. and Paino, J. (1990). Consequences of maternal anaemia on outcome of pregnancy in a malaria endemic area in Papua New Guinea. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 84, 11-24.
13. Brake, D. A. (2003). Parasite and immune response. DNA and Cell Biology 22, 405-419.
14. Bray, R. S. and Anderson, M. J. (1979). Falciparum malaria and pregnancy. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73, 427-431.
15. Broen, K., Brustoski, K., Engelmann, I. and Luty, A. J. (2007). Placental Plasmodium falciparum infection: causes and consequences of in utero sensitization to parasite antigens. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 151, 1-8.
16. Bruce-Chwatt, L. J. (1983). Malaria and pregnancy. British Medical Journal 286, 1457-1458.
17. Brustoski, K., Moller, U., Kramer, M., Petelski, A., Brenner, S., Palmer, D. R., Bongartz, M., Kremsner, P. G., Luty, A. J. and Krzych, U. (2005). IFN-gamma and IL-10 mediate parasite-specific immune responses of cord blood cells induced by pregnancy-associated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Journal of Immunology 174, 1738-1745.
18. Brustoski, K., Moller, U., Kramer, M., Hartgers, F. C., Kremsner, P. G., Krzych, U. and Luty, A. J. (2006). Reduced cord blood immune effector-cell responsiveness mediated by CD4+ cells induced in utero as a consequence of placental Plasmodium falciparum infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 193, 146-154.
19. Buimovici-Klein, E. and Cooper, L. Z. (1985). Cell-mediated immune response in Rubella infections. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 7 (Suppl. 1), S123-S128.
20. Cannon, D. S. H. (1958). Malaria and prematurity in the western region of Nigeria. British Medical Journal 2, 877-888.
21. Clark, D. A. (1994). Microfilaria, tolerance, and T cells. Lancet 343, 868-869.
22. Covell, G. (1950). Congenital malaria. Tropical Diseases Bulletin 47, 121-125.
23. Craig, A. and Scherf, A. (2001). Molecules on the surface of the Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocyte and their role in malaria pathogenesis and immune evasion. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 115, 129-143.
24. Deloron, P., Dubois, B., Le Hasran, J. Y., Richie, D., Fievet, N., Cornet, M., Ringwald, P. and Cot, M. (1997). Isotypic analysis of maternally transmitted Plasmodium falciparum-specific antibodies in Cameroon, and relationship with risk of P. falciparum infection. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 110, 212-218.
25. Desowitz, R. S. (1988). Prenatal immune priming in malaria: antigen-specific blastogenesis of cord blood lymphocytes from neonates born in a setting of holoendemic malaria. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 82, 121-125.
26. Desowitz, R. S. (1992). Placental Plasmodium falciparum parasitemia in East Sepik (Papua New Guinea) women of different parity: the apparent absence of acute effects on mother and foetus. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 86, 95-102.
27. Druilhe, P., Monjour, L. and Gentilini, M. (1976). Passage transplacentaire des antigènes solubles plasmodiaux. Induction d'une tolérance immuitaire spécifique. Presse Medicale 5, 1430-1431.
28. Dunn, D., Wallon, M., Peyron, F., Petersen, E., Peckham, C. and Gilbert, R. (1999). Mother-to-child transmission of toxoplasmosis: risk estimates for clinical counselling. Lancet 353, 1829-1833.
29. Elson, L. H., Days, A., Calvopina, M., Paredes, W., Araujo, E., Guderian, R. H., Bradley, J. E. and Nutman, T. B. (1996). In utero exposure to Onchocerca volvulus: relationship to subsequent infection intensity and cellular immune responsiveness. Infection and Immunity 64, 5061-5065.
30. Eynon, E. E. and Parker, D. C. (1993). Parameters of tolerance induction by antigen targeted to B lymphocytes. Journal of Immunology 151, 2958-2964.
31. Fievet, N., Ringwald, P., Bickii, J., Dubois, B., Maubert, B., Hesran J. Y. le, Cot, M. and Deloron, P. (1996). Malaria cellular immune response in neonates from Cameroun. Parasite Immunology 18, 483-490.
32. Fried, M., Nosten, F., Brockman, A., Brabin, B. J. and Du.y, P. E. (1998). Maternal antibodies block malaria. Nature 395, 851-852.
33. Fried, M., Muga, R. O., Misore, A. O. and Du.y, P. E. (1998). Malaria elicts type 1 cytokines in the human placenta: IFN-γ and TNF-α associated with pregnancy outcomes. Journal of Immunology 160, 2523-2530.
34. Ganem, D. and Prince, A. M. (2004). Hepatitis B virus infection - natural history and clinical consequences. New England Journal of Medicine 350, 1118-1129.
35. Garweg, J. G., Scherrer, J., Wallon, M., Kodjikian, L. and Peyron, F. (2005). Reactivation of ocular toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 112, 241-242.
36. Gilles, H. M., Lawson, J. B., Sibelas, M., Voller, A. and Allan, N. (1969). Malaria, anemia and pregnancy. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 63, 245-263.
37. Gras, L., Wallon, M., Pollak, A., Cortina-Borja, M., Evengard, B., Hayde, M., Petersen, E. and Gilbert, R. for the European Multicenter Study on Congenital Toxoplasmosis (2005). Association between prenatal treatment and clinical manifestations of congenital toxoplasmosis in infancy: a cohort study in 13 European centres. Acta Paediatrica 94, 1721-1731.
38. Gürtler, R. E., Segura, E. L. and Cohen, J. E. (2003). Congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in Argentina. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9, 29-32.
39. Guglietta, S., Beghetto, E., Spadoni, A., Bu.olano, W., del Porto, P. and Gargano, N. (2007). Age-dependent impairment of functional helper T cell responses to immunodominant epitopes of Toxoplasma gondii antigens in congenitally infected individuals. Microbes and Infection 9, 127-133.
40. Hang, L. M., Boros, D. L. and Warren, K. S. (1974). Induction of immunological hyporesponsiveness to granulomatous hypersensitivity in Schistosoma mansoni infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 130, 515-522.
41. Hara, T., Ohashi, S., Yamashita, Y., Abe, T., Hisaeda, H., Himemo, K., Good, R. A. and Takeshita, K. (1996). Human Vδ2+ γδ T-cell tolerance to foreign antigens of Toxoplasma gondii. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 93, 5136-5140.
42. Hermann, E., Truyens, C., Alonso-Vega, C., Even, J., Rodriguez, P., Berthe, A., Gonzalez-Merino, E., Torrico, F. and Carlier, Y. (2002). Human fetuses are able to mount an adultlike CD8 T-cell response. Blood 100, 2153-2158.
43. Hermann, E., Alonso-Vega, C., Berthe, A., Truyens, C., Flores, A., Cordova, M., Moretta, L., Torrico, F., Braud, V. and Carlier, Y. (2006). Human congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi induces phenotypic and functional modifications of cord blood NK cells. Pediatric Research 60, 38-43.
44. Hohlfeld, P., Forestier, F., Marion, S., Thulliez, P., Marcon, P. and Daffos, F. (1990). Toxoplasma gondii infection during pregnancy: T lymphocyte subpopulations in mothers and fetuses. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal 9, 878-881.
45. Hui, C.-K. and Lau, G. K. K. (2005). Immune system and hepatitis B virus infection. Journal of Clinical Virology 34 (Suppl. 1), S44-S48.
46. Ismaili, J., van der Sande, M., Holland, M. J., Sambou, I., Keita, S., Allsopp, C., Ota, M. O., McAdam, K. P. and Pinder, M. (2003). Plasmodium falciparum infection of the placenta affects newborn immune responses. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 133, 414-421.
47. King, C. L., Malhotra, I., Wamachi, A., Kioko, J., Mungai, P., Wahab, S. A., Koech, D., Zimmerman, P., Ouma, J. and Kazura, J. W. (2002). Acquired immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein-1 in the human fetus. Journal of Immunology 168, 356-364.
48. Kirch, A. K., Duerr, H. P., Boatin, B., Alley, W. S., Hoffmann, W. H., Schulz-Key, H. and Soboslay, P. T. (2003). Impact of parental onchocerciasis and intensity of transmission on development and persistence of Onchocerca volvulus infection in offspring: an 18 year follow-up study. Parasitology 127, 327-335.
49. Lammie, P. J., Hitch, W. L., Allen, E. M. W., Hightower, W. and Eberhard, M. L. (1991). Maternal filarial infection as risk factor for infection in children. Lancet 337, 1005-1006.
50. Larkin, G. L. and Thuma, P. E. (1991). Congenital malaria in a hyperendemic area. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 45, 587-592.
51. Le Hasran, J. Y., Cot, M., Personne, P., Fievet, N., Dubois, B., Beyemé , M., Boudin, C. and Deloron, P. (1997). Maternal placental infection with Plasmodium falciparum and malaria morbidity during the first 2 years of life. American Journal of Epidemiology 146, 826-831.
52. Lewert, R. E. and Mandlowitz, S. (1969). Schistosmiasis. Prenatal induction of tolerance to antigens. Nature 224, 1029-1030.
53. Lok, A. S., McMahon, B. J. and the Practice Guidelines Committee, American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (2001). Chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 34, 1225-1241.
54. Maizels, R. M. and Yazdanbakhsh, M. (2003). Immune regulation by helminth parasites: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Nature Reviews Immunology 3, 733-744.
55. Malhotra, I., Mungai, P., Wamachi, A., Kioko, J., Ouma, J. H., Kazura, J. W. and King, C. L. (1999). Helminth- and Bacillus Calmette-Guerin- induced immunity in children sensitized in utero to filariasis and schistosomiasis. Journal of Immunology 162, 6843-6848.
56. Malhotra, I., Mungai, P., Muchiri, E., Ouma, J., Sharma, S., Kazura, J. W. and King, C. L. (2005a). Distinct Th1- and Th2-Type prenatal cytokine responses to Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte invasion ligands. Infection and Immunity 73, 3462-3470.
57. Malhotra, I., Ouma, J. H., Wamachi, A., Kioko, J., Mungai, P., Njzovu, M., Kazura, J. W. and King, C. L. (2005b). Influence of maternal filariasis on childhood infection and immunity to Wuchereria bancrofti in Kenya. Infection and Immunity 71, 5231-5237.
58. Malhotra, I., Mungai, P. L., Wamachi, A. N., Tisch, D., Kioko, J. M., Ouma, J. H., Muchiri, E., Kazura, J. W. and King, C. L. (2006). Prenatal T cell immunity to Wuchereria bancrofti and its effect on filarial immunity and infection susceptibility during childhood. Journal of Infectious Diseases 193, 1005-1013.
59. Marchant, A., Appay, V., Sande M. van der, Dulphy, N., Liesnard, C. and Kidd, M. (2003). Mature CD8+ T lymphocyte response to viral infection during fetal life. Journal of Clinical Investigation 111, 1747-1755.
60. McDermott, J. M., Wirima, J. J., Steketee, R. W., Breman, J. G. and Heymann, D. L. (1996). The effect of placental malaria infection on perinatal mortality in rural Malawi. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 55 (Suppl. 1), 61-65.
61. McGregor, I. A. (1984). Epidemiology, malaria and pregnancy. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 33, 517-525.
62. McLeod, R., Beem, O. M. and Estes, R. G. (1985). Lymphocyte anergy specific to Toxoplasma gondii in a baby with congenital toxoplasmosis. Journal of Clinical Laboratory Immunology 17, 149-153.
63. Menendez, C., Ordi, J., Ismail, M. R., Ventura, P. J., Aponte, J. J., Kahigwa, E., Font, F. and Alonso, P. L. (2000). The impact of placental malaria on gestational age and birth weight. Journal of Infectious Diseases 181, 1740-1745.
64. Miller, M. J. (1958). Observations of the natural history of malaria in the semi-resistant west African. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 52, 152-168.
65. Mora, M. C., Sanchez-Negrette, O., Marco, D., Barrio, A., Ciaccio, M., Segura, M. A. and Basombrio, M. A. (2005). Early diagnosis of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection using PCR, hemoculture, and capillary concentration, as compared with delayed serology. Journal of Parasitology 91, 1468-1473.
66. Moormann, A. M., Sullivan, A. D., Rochford, R. A., Chensue, P. J., Bock, P. J., Nyirenda, T. and Meshnik, S. R. (1999). Malaria and pregnancy: placental cytokine expression and its relationship to intrauterine growth retardation. Journal of Infectious Diseases 180, 1987-1993.
67. Mutabingwa, T. K., Bolla, M. C., Li, J. L., Domingo, G. J., Li, X., Fried, M. and Duffy, P. E. (2005). Maternal malaria and gravidity interact to modify infant susceptibility to malaria. Public Library of Science Medicine 2, 1260-1268.
68. Negrette, O. S., Mora, M. C. and Basombrio, M. A. (2005). High prevalence of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection and family clustering in Salta, Argentina. Pediatrics 115, e668-672.
69. Neves, S. F., Eloi-Santos, S., Ramos, R., Rigueirinho, S., Gazzinelli, G. and Correa-Oliveira, R. (1999). In utero sensitization in Chagas' disease leads to altered lymphocyte phenotypic patterns in the newborn cord blood mononuclear cells. Parasite Immunology 21, 631-639.
70. Nossal, G. J. V., Karvelas, M. and Pulendran, B. (1993). Soluble antigen profoundly reduces memory B-cell numbers even when given after challenge immunization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 90, 3088-3092.
71. Nosten, F., ter-Kuile, F., Maelankirri, L., Decludt, B. and White, N. J. (1991). Malaria during pregnancy in an area of unstable endemicity. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 85, 424-429.
72. Ordi, J., Ismail, M. R., Ventura, P. J., Kahigwa, E., Hirt, R., Cardesa, A., Alonso, P. L. and Menendez, C. (1998). Massive chronic intervillositis of the placenta associated with malaria infection. American Journal of Surgery and Pathology 22, 1006-1011.
73. Ou, D., Chong, P., Tingle, A. J. and Gillam, S. (1993). Mapping T-cell epitopes of Rubella virus structural proteins E1, E2 and C recognized by T-cell lines and clones derived from infected and immunized populations. Journal of Medical Virology 40, 175-183.
74. Petersen, E., Høgh, B., Marbiah, N. T., David, K. and Hanson, A. P. (1991). Development of immunity against Plasmodium falciparum malaria: Clinical and parasitological malaria can not be separated. Journal of Infectious Diseases 164, 149-153.
75. Pouvelle, B., Bu.et, P. A., Lepolard, C., Scherf, A. and Gysin, J. (2000). Cytoadherence of Plasmodium falciparum ring-stage-infected erythrocytes. Nature Medicine 6, 1264-1268.
76. Ridge, J. P., Fuchs, E. J. and Matzinger, P. (1996). Neonatal tolerance revisited : turning on newborn T cells with dendritic cells. Science 271, 1723-1726.
77. Riecke, C. H., Staalsoe, T., Koram, K., Akanmori, B. D., Riley, E. M., Theander, T. G. and Hviid, L. (2000). Plasma antibodies from malaria-exposed pregnant women recognize variant surface antigens on Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes in a parity-dependent manner and block parasite adhesion to chondroitin sulphate A. Journal of Immunology 163, 3309-3316.
78. Rogerson, S. J., Pollina, E., Getachew, A., Tadesse, E., Lema, V. M. and Molyneux, M. E. (2003). Placental monocyte infiltrates in response to Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection and their association with adverse pregnancy outcomes. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 68, 115-119.
79. Schenone, H., Gaggero, M., Sapunar, J., Contreras M. C. del and Rojas, A. (2001). Congenital Chagas disease of second generation in Santiago, Chile. Report of two cases. Revista Instituto Medicale e Tropicale Sao Paulo 43, 231-232.
80. Schleiss, M. R. (2006). The role of the placenta in the pathogenesis of congenital cytomegalovirus infection: is the benefit of cytomegalovirus immune globulin for the newborn mediated through improved placental health and function? Clinical Infectious Diseases 43, 1001-1003.
81. Soboslay, P. T., Geiger, S. M., Drabner, B., Banla, M., Batchassi, E., Kowu, L. A., Stadler, A. and Schulz-Key, H. (1999). Prenatal immune priming in onchocerciasis-Onchocerca volvulus-specific cellular responsiveness and cytokine production in newborns from infected mothers. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 117, 130-137.
82. Stagno, S., Pass, R. F., Dworsky, M. E. and Alford, C. A. Jr (1982). Maternal cytomegalovirus infection and perinatal transmission. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 25, 563-576.
83. Steel, C., Guinea, A., McCarthy, J. and Ottesen, E. A. (1994). Long-term e.ect of prenatal exposure to maternal microfilaremia on immune responsiveness to filarial parasite antigens. Lancet 343, 890-893.
84. Stekete, R. W., Wirima, J. J., Hightower, A. W., Slutsker, L., Heymann, D. L. and Breman, J. G. (1996). The effect of malaria and malaria prevention in pregnancy on offspring birthweight, prematurity and interuterine growth retardation in rural Malawi. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 55, 33-41.
85. Su, X. Z., Heatwole, V. M., Wertheimer, S. P., Guinet, F., Herrfeldt, J. A., Peterson, D. S., Ravetch, J. A. and Wellems, T. E. (1995). The large diverse family of var encodes proteins involved in cytoadherence and antigenic variation of Plasmodium falciparum-infected eythrocytes. Cell 82, 89-100.
86. Tachon, P. and Borojevic, R. (1978). Mother-child relation in human schistosomiasis mansoni: skin test and cord blood reactivity to schistosomal antigens. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 72, 605-609.
87. Tobian, A. A., Mehlotra, R. K., Malhotra, I., Wamachi, A., Mungai, P., Koech, D., Ouma, J., Zimmerman, P. and King, C. L. (2000). Frequent umbilical cord-blood and maternal-blood infections with Plasmodium falciparum, P. malariae, and P. ovale in Kenya. Journal of Infectious Diseases 182, 558-563.
88. Torre, R. L., Nigro, G., Mazzocco, M., Best, A. M. and Adler, S. P. (2006). Placental enlargement in women with primary maternal cytomegalovirus infection is associated with fetal and neonatal disease. Clinical Infectious Diseases 43, 994-1000.
89. Torrico, F., Vega, C. A., Suarez, E., Tellez, T., Brutus, L., Rodriguez, P., Torrico, M. C., Schneider, D., Truyens, C. and Carlier, Y. (2006). Are maternal re-infections with Trypanosoma cruzi associated with higher morbidity and mortality of congenital Chagas disease? Tropical Medicine and International Health 11, 628-635.
90. Urban, B. C., Ferguson, D. J., Pain, A., Willcox, N., Plebanski, M., Austyn, J. M. and Roberts, D. J. (1999). Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes modulate the maturation of dendritic cells. Nature 400, 73-77.
91. Vekemans, J., Truyens, C., Torrico, F., Solano, M., Torrico, M. C., Rodriguez, P., Alonso-Vega, C. and Carlier, Y. (2000). Maternal Trypanosoma cruzi infection upregulates capacity of uninfected neonate cells to produce pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Infection and Immunity 68, 5430-5434.
92. Wallon, M., Kodjikian, L., Binquet, C., Garweg, J., Fleury, J., Quantin, C. and Peyron, F. (2004). Long-term ocular prognosis in 327 children with congenital toxoplasmosis. Pediatrics 113, 1567-1572.
93. Weil, G. J., Hussain, R., Kumaraswami, V., Phillips, K. S. and Ottesen, E. A. (1983). Prenatal allergic sensitization to helminth antigens in offspring of parasite-infected mothers. Journal of Clinical Investigation 71, 1124-1129.
94. Wilson, M. S. and Maizels, R. M. (2006). Regulatory T cells induced by parasites and the modulation of allergic responses. In Parasites and Allergy (ed. Capron, M. & Trottein, F.), pp. 176-195. Karger, Basel.
95. Yamada, M., Stekete, R., Abramowsky, C., Kida, M., Wirima, J., Heymann, D., Rabbege, J., Breman, J. and Aitkawa, M. (1989). Plasmodium falciparum-associated placental pathology: a light and electron microscopic and immunohistologic study. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 41, 161-168.
96. Yamamoto, J. H., Vallochi, A. L., Silveira, C., Filho, J. K., Nussenblatt, R. B., Cunha-Neto, E., Gazzinelli, R. T., Belfort, R. Jr and Rizzo, L. V. (2000). Discrimination between patients with acquired toxoplasmosis and congenital toxoplasmosis on the basis of the immune response to parasite antigens. Journal of Infectious Diseases 181, 2018-2022.
97. Xi, G., Leke, R. G., Thuita, L. W., Zhou, A., Leke, R. J., Mbu, R. and Taylor, D. W. (2003). Congenital exposure to Plasmodium falciparum antigens: prevalence and antigenic specificity of in utero-produced antimalarial immunoglobulin M antibodies. Infection and Immunity 71, 1242-1246.