'Framing' the Copenhagen school: Integrating the literature on threat construction

Millennium: Journal of International Studies

Volumn 40, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 279-301

  Watson, Scott D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Framing; IR theory; Securitisation; Threat construction

Indexed keywords

EID: 84855582872     PISSN: 03058298     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0305829811425889     Document Type: Article

References (235)

1. This point was raised by Jeffrey Checkel in a roundtable discussion of securitisation theory at ISA 2010.
2. See, in particular, Mark Salter, 'Securitization and Desecuritization: A Dramaturgical Analysis of the Canadian Air Transport Security Authority', Journal of International Relations Development 11, no. 4 (2008): 321-49
3. Fred Vultee, 'Securitization as a Media Frame: What Happens When the Media "Speak Security"', in Securitization Theory: How Security Problems Emerge and Dissolve, ed. Thierry Balzacq (London: Routledge, 2010), 77-93
4. Matt McDonald and Matt Merefield, 'How Was Howard's War Possible? Winning the War of Position over Iraq', Australian Journal of International Affairs 64, no. 2 (2010): 186-204. 3
5. See Thierry Balzacq, 'The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context', European Journal of International Relations 11, no. 2 (2005): 183
6. Holger Stritzel, 'Towards a Theory of Securitization: Copenhagen and beyond', European Journal of International Relations 13, no. 3 (2007): 368
7. Didier Bigo, 'Security and Immigration: Toward a Critique of the Governmentality of Unease', Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 27, no. 1 (2002): 64
8. Jef Huysmans, 'The European Union and the Securitization of Migration', Journal of Common Market Studies 38, no. 5 (2000): 757.
9. While I do not endorse a 'school'-based understanding of security studies, this term is both common in the literature and may usefully be used to denote a body of work that emanates
10. from Ole Wæver and his collaborative work with Barry Buzan and that focuses on the importance of linguistic-grammatical composition in the construction of security
11. case. collective, 'Critical Approaches to Security in Europe: A Networked Manifesto', Security Dialogue 37, no. 4 (2006): 443-87.
12. case., 'Critical Approaches
13. case. collective, 'Europe, Knowledge, Politics: Engaging with the Limits: The case. Collective Responds', Security Dialogue 38, no. 4 (2007): 559-76.
14. For a few examples, see Paul T. McCartney, 'American Nationalism and U.S. Foreign Policy from September 11 to the Iraq War', Political Science Quarterly 119, no. 3 (2004): 399-423
15. Amy Gershkoff and Shana Kushner, 'Shaping Public Opinion: The 9/11-Iraq Connection in the Bush Administration's Rhetoric', Perspectives of Politics 3, no. 3 (2005): 525-37
16. Roy Eldon Hiebert, 'Public Relations and Propaganda in Framing the Iraq War: A Preliminary Review', Public Relations Review 29, no. 3 (2003): 243-55
17. Judith Butler, Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? (New York: Verso, 2009).
18. Claire Wilkinson, 'The Copenhagen School on Tour in Kyrgyzstan: Is Securitization Theory Useable Outside Europe?', Security Dialogue 38, no. 1 (2007): 5-25
19. Thierry Balzacq, ed., Securitization Theory: How Security Problems Emerge and Dissolve (London: Routledge, 2010)
20. Paul D'Angelo, 'News Framing as a Multiparadigmatic Research Program: A Response to Entman', Journal of Communication 52, no. 4 (2002): 870-88.
21. For example, see Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, 'The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice', Science 211, no. 4481 (1981): 453-8
22. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, 'Choices, Values, and Frames', American Psychologist 39, no. 4 (1984): 341-50
23. Shanto Iyengar and Donald Kinder, News That Matters (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
24. Two examples are William Gamson and Andre Modigliani, 'Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach', American Journal of Sociology 95, no. 1 (1989): 1-37
25. Steve Valocchi, 'The Emergence of the Integrationist Ideology in the Civil Rights Movement', Social Problems 43, no. 1 (1996): 116-30.
26. Butler, Frames of War.
27. Kevin Carragee and Wim Roefs, 'The Neglect of Power in Recent Framing Research', Journal of Communication 54, no. 2 (2004): 214-33
28. Baldwin Van Gorp, 'The Constructionist Approach to Framing: Bringing Culture Back In', Journal of Communication 57, no. 1 (2007): 60-78.
29. Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver and Jaap De Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (London: Routledge, 1998), 24
30. Ibid., 33.
31. Robert Entman, 'Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm', Journal of Communication 43 (1993): 52.
32. Ibid.
33. In securitization, see Buzan, et al., Security, 29-31
34. in framing, see William Gamson, David Croteau, William Hoynes and Theodor Sasson, 'Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality', Annual Sociological Review 18 (1992): 373-93.
35. Ole Wæver, 'Securitization and Desecuritization', in On Security, ed. Ronnie Lipschutz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 46-86
36. Buzan, et al., Security, 33.
37. Michael Williams, 'Words, Images, Enemies: Securitization and International Politics', International Studies Quarterly 47, no. 4 (2003): 511-31
38. Balzacq, 'Three Faces
39. Stritzel, 'Towards'.
40. Matt McDonald, 'Securitization and the Construction of Security', European Journal of International Relations 14, no. 4 (2008): 563.
41. David Snow and Robert Benford, 'Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment', Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): 614.
42. In securitization, see Stritzel, 'Towards
43. in framing, see Gamson, et al., 'Media Images'.
44. Buzan, et al.,Security, 25, 33.
45. Robert Entman, Democracy without Citizens: Media and the Decay of American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989)
46. Doris Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide, 2nd edn (New York: Longman, 1988).
47. Gamson, et al., 'Media Images', 384.
48. Buzan, et al., Security, 26.
49. Ibid., 25.
50. Ibid., 29.
51. Wæver, 'Securitization', 58.
52. Stritzel, 'Towards', 361.
53. Balzacq, 'Three Faces', 185.
54. Juha Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization: Applying the Theory of Securitization to the Study of Non-democratic Political Orders', European Journal of International Relations 14, no. 1 (2008): 72-3.
55. Entman, 'Framing', 54-6.
56. J.W. Rhee, 'Strategy and Issue Frames in Election Campaign Coverage: A Social Cognitive Account of Framing Effects', Journal of Communication 47, no. 3 (1997): 26-48.
57. William Gamson, Talking Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press,1992).
58. Robert Entman, 'Symposium Framing US Coverage of International News: Contrasts in Narratives of the KAL and Iran Air Incidents', Journal of Communication 41, no. 4 (1991): 6-27.
59. Snow, and Benford, 'Framing Processes
60. Valocchi V., 'The Emergence'.
61. Gamson V., et al., 'Media Images', 375.
62. Buzan, et al., Security, 31
63. Wæver, 'Securitization'.
64. Balzacq, 'Three Faces', 191.
65. Ibid.
66. Salter, 'Dramaturgical Analysis'.
67. Buzan, et al., Security, 33.
68. Balzacq, 'Three Faces', 173.
69. Stritzel, 'Towards', 370.
70. Ibid., 360.
71. McDonald, 'Securitization and the Construction of Security', 564.
72. Gamson, et al., 'Media Images', 382
73. Carragee, and Roefs, 'Neglect of Power', 225.
74. Entman, 'Framing', 55
75. Carragee, and Roefs, 'Neglect of Power', 216.
76. Ben Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 1st edn (Boston: Beacon Press, 1983)
77. Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, 1st edn (New York: Pantheon Books, 1988).
78. Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (New York: Free Press, 1978)
79. Herbert Gans, Deciding What's News: A Study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek, and Time, 1st edn (New York: Pantheon Books,1979)
80. Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980)
81. William Gamson and Gadi Wolfsfeld, 'Movements and Media as Interacting Systems', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 528 (1993): 114-25.
82. Buzan, et al., Security, 33.
83. Balzacq, 'Three Faces', 181.
84. Salter, 'Dramaturgical Analysis', 322.
85. Stritzel, 'Towards', 368.
86. Entman, 'Framing', 53
87. Van Gorp, 'The Constructionist Approach'.
88. John Noakes, 'Official Frames in Social Movement Theory: The FBI, HUAC, and the Communist Threat in Hollywood', Sociological Quarterly 41, no. 4 (2000): 657-80.
89. Robert Benford, 'Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement', Social Forces 71, no. 3 (1993): 677-701.
90. Sharon Nepstad, 'The Process of Cognitive Liberation: Cultural Synapses, Links, and Frame Contradictions in the U.S.-Central America Peace Movement', Sociological Inquiry 67, no. 4 (1997): 470-87.
91. William Carroll and Robert Ratner, 'Master Frames and Counter-hegemony: Political Sensibilities in Contemporary Social Movements', Canadian Review of Sociology 33, no. 4 (1996): 411;
92. Jurgen Gerhards and Dieter Rucht, 'Mesomobilization: Organizing and Framing in Two Protest Campaigns in West Germany', American Journal of Sociology 98, no. 3 (1992): 573.
93. Snow, and Benford, 'Framing Processes', 619.
94. Noakes N., 'Official Frames'.
95. Chaim Kaufmann, 'Threat Inflation and the Failure of the Marketplace of Ideas: The Selling of the Iraq War', International Security 29, no. 1 (2004): 5-48
96. Gershkoff, and Kushner, 'Shaping Public Opinion', 525-37
97. Trevor Thrall, 'A Bear in the Woods? Threat Framing and the Marketplace of Values', Security Studies 16, no. 3 (2007): 452-88
98. Jane Cramer, 'Militarized Patriotism: Why the Marketplace of Ideas Failed before the Iraq War', Security Studies 16, no. 3 (2007): 489-524.
99. Shana Gadarian, 'The Politics of Threat: How Terrorism News Shapes Foreign Policy Attitudes', Journal of Politics 72, no. 2 (2010): 469-83.
100. Paul Roe, 'Actor, Audience(s) and Emergency Measures: Securitization and the UK's Decision to Invade Iraq', Security Dialogue 39, no. 6 (2008): 615-35.
101. Shoshana Blum-Kulka and Tamar Liebes, 'Frame Ambiguities: Intifada Narrativization of the Experience by Israeli Soldiers', in Framing the Intifada: People and Media, eds Akiba Cohen and Gadi Wolfsfeld (Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, 1993), 27-52.
102. David Meyer, 'Framing National Security: Elite Public Discourse on Nuclear Weapons during the Cold War', Political Communication 12, no. 2 (1995): 173-92.
103. Benford, 'Frame Disputes'.
104. Noakes N., 'Official Frames'.
105. Robert Benford, 'An Insider's Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective', Sociological Inquiry 67, no. 4 (1997): 409-30.
106. I would like to thank an anonymous reviewer at Millennium for this observation.
107. Buzan, et al., Security, 27.
108. Ibid., 33
109. see also Williams, 'Words, Images, Enemies'.
110. See Rita Abrahamsen, 'Blair's Africa: The Politics of Securitization and Fear', Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 30, no. 1 (2005): 71
111. Stritzel, 'Towards', 367
112. Lene Hansen and Helen Nissenbaum, 'Digital Disaster, Cyber Security and the Copenhagen School', International Studies Quarterly 53, no. 4 (2009): 1159.
113. See Buzan, et al., Security, 28
114. Scott Watson, 'The Human as Referent Object', Security Dialogue 42, no. 1 (2011): 8-10.
115. Bigo, 'Security and Immigration', 65.
116. Hansen H., and Nissenbaum N., Digital Disaster, 1159
117. David Snow and Robert Benford, 'Master Frames and Cycles of Protest', in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, eds Aldon Morris and Carol Mueller (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 139.
118. Snow, and Benford, 'Master Frames
119. Carroll, and Ratner, 'Master Frames and Counterhegemony', 410.
120. Kathleen Hull, 'The Political Limits of the Rights Frame: The Case of Same-Sex Marriage in Hawaii', Sociological Perspectives 44, no. 2 (2001): 207-32.
121. Williams, 'Words, Images, Enemies', 520.
122. For a few examples, see Entman F., 'Framing
123. Gamson, et al. 'Media Images
124. Snow, and Benford, 'Framing Processes'.
125. D'Angelo, 'News Framing', 876.
126. Jack Levy, 'Loss Aversion, Framing, and Bargaining: The Implications of Prospect Theory for International Conflict', International Political Science Review 17, no. 2 (1996): 179-95
127. Alex Mintz and Stephen Redd, 'Framing Effects in International Relations', Synthese 135, no. 2 (2003): 193-213
128. Tversky, and Kahneman, 'Choices, Values and Frames'.
129. Alan Doig and Mark Phythian.,'The National Interest and the Politics of Threat Exaggeration: The Blair Government's Case for War against Iraq', Political Quarterly 76, no. 3 (2005): 368-76
130. Kaufmann, 'Threat Inflation
131. Thrall, 'A Bear in the Woods?'.
132. Jon Western, 'The War over Iraq: Selling War to the American Public', Security Studies 14, no. 1 (2005): 106-39
133. Michael J. Hiscox, 'Through a Glass and Darkly: Attitudes toward International Trade and the Curious Effects of Issue Framing', International Organization 60, no. 3 (2006): 755-80.
134. D'Angelo, 'News Framing', 876.
135. case., 'Critical Approaches', 446.
136. case, 'Europe, Knowledge, Politics', 559.
137. Rita Taureck, 'Securitization Theory and Securitization Studies', Journal of International Relations Development 9, no. 1 (2006): 54.
138. case., 'Critical Approaches', 452.
139. Ole Wæver, 'Reflections from a Pessimistic Constructivist on Post-sovereign Security Orders', in International Relations Theory and the Politics of European Integration, eds Morten Kelstrup and Michael Williams (London: Routledge, 2000).
140. Paul Williams, Security Studies: An Introduction (London: Taylor & Francis, 2008)
141. Alan Collins, Contemporary Security Studies, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010);
142. Victor Mauer and Miriam Cavelty, The Routledge Handbook of Security Studies (London: Routledge, 2011).
143. Mauer M., and Cavelty C., Routledge Handbook
144. Williams, Security Studies. For the place of constructivism relative to rationalist and relativist theory
145. see Emmanuel Adler, 'Seizing the Middle Ground', European Journal of International Relations 3, no. 3 (1997): 319-63
146. Stephan Guzzini, 'A Reconstruction of Constructivism in International Relations', European Journal of International Relations 6, no. 2 (2000): 147-82.
147. Wæver, 'Reflections', 251.
148. Ibid., 251-2.
149. Kaufmann, 'Threat Inflation'.
150. Ronald Krebs and Chaim Kaufmann, 'Selling the Market Short? The Marketplace of Ideas and the Iraq War', International Security 29, no. 4 (2005): 196
151. Kaufmann, 'Threat Inflation', 8.
152. Thrall, 'A Bear in the Woods?', 481, 482 and 487.
153. Buzan, et al., Security, 33.
154. Williams, 'Words, Images, Enemies', 514
155. Balzacq, 'Three Faces', 174, 181
156. Wæver, 'Reflections', 252
157. Salter, 'Dramaturgical Analysis', 322
158. Stritzel, 'Towards', 368.
159. Snow, and Benford, 'Framing Processes', 620
160. Gamson, and Modigliani, 'Media Discourse'.
161. McDonald, and Merefield, 'How Was Howard's War Possible?', 187.
162. See Johan Eriksson, 'Observers or Advocates?', Cooperation and Conflict 34, no. 3 (1999): 311
163. Claudia Aradau, 'Security and the Democratic Scene: Desecuritization and Emancipation', Journal of International Relations and Development 7, no. 4 (2004): 388-413
164. Wæver, 'Securitization
165. Taureck, 'Securitization Theory'.
166. Taureck, 'Securitization Theory', 59.
167. Ibid.
168. Wæver, 'Reflections', 252.
169. case., 'Critical Approaches', 445
170. Buzan, et al., Security, 29.
171. Aradau, 'Security and the Democratic Scene
172. Jef Huysmans, 'Minding Exceptions: The Politics of Insecurity and Liberal Democracy', Contemporary Political Theory 3, no. 3 (2004): 321-41.
173. Williams, 'Words, Images, Enemies', 512
174. Taureck, 'Securitization Theory', 59.
175. Kaufmann, 'Threat Inflation
176. Thrall, 'A Bear in the Woods?
177. Krebs K., and Kaufmann, 'Selling the Market Short?
178. Cramer C., 'Militarized Patriotism'.
179. Kaufmann, 'Threat Inflation'.
180. Gamson, Talking Politics, 373.
181. For example, see Balzacq, 'Three Faces
182. Stritzel, 'Towards
183. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic'.
184. For a few examples, see Sarah Davies, 'Securitizing Infectious Disease', International Affairs 84, no. 2 (2008): 295-313
185. Scott Watson, The Securitization of Humanitarian Migration (London: Routledge, 2009)
186. McDonald, and Merefield, 'How Was Howard's War Possible?'.
187. Salter, 'Dramaturgical Analysis', 329.
188. See Frank Möller, 'Photographic Interventions in Post-9/11 Security Policy', Security Dialogue 38, no. 2 (2007): 179-96
189. Lene Hansen, 'Theorizing the Image for Security Studies', European Journal of International Relations 17, no. 1 (2011): 51-74
190. see also McDonald, 'Securitization and the Construction of Security' Three Faces, 568
191. Williams, 'Words, Images, Enemies
192. A few prominent examples include Tuchman, Making News
193. Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching.
194. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly
195. Gamson, et al., 'Media Images'.
196. William Gamson and David Stuart, 'Media Discourse as Symbolic Contest: The Bomb in Political Cartoons', Sociological Forum 7, no. 1 (1992): 55-86.
197. Larry Isaac, 'Counterframes and Allegories of Evil', Work and Occupations 35, no. 4 (2008): 388-421.
198. Murray Edelman, The Symbolic Uses of Politics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964)
199. Paul Messaris and Linus Abraham, 'The Role of Images in Framing News Stories', in Framing Public Life: Perspectives on Media and Our Understanding of the Social World, eds Steven Reese, Oscar Gandy and August Grant (New York: Routledge, 2003), 215-26
200. Osei Appiah and Linus Abraham, 'Framing News Stories: The Role of Visual Imagery in Priming Racial Stereotypes', Howard Journal of Communications 17, no. 3 (2006): 183-203.
201. Lene Hansen, 'Theorizing the Image'.
202. For a discussion of the difficulty of studying audience acceptance and resonance, see Salter, 'When Securitization Fails', 121.
203. Gamson, Talking Politics
204. Gamson, et al., 'Media Images'.
205. Shanto Iyengar, Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
206. Tamar Liebes and Rivka Ribak, 'In Defense of Negotiated Readings: How Moderates on Each Side of the Conflict Interpret Intifada News', Journal of Communication 44, no. 2 (1994): 108-24.
207. Wilkinson, 'The Copenhagen School on Tour'.
208. McDonald M, 'Securitization and the Construction of Security'. 140. Balzacq, 'Three Faces', 191.
209. Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton, 'Mass Media, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action', in Media Studies: A Reader, eds Paul Marris and Sue Thornham, 2nd edn (New York: NYU Press, 2000 [1948])
210. Susan Herbst, 'Political Authority in a Mediated Age', Theory and Society 32, no. 4 (2003): 481-503.
211. Herman, and Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent
212. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly.
213. For example, see Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching
214. Edward Herman, 'Diversity of News: "Marginalizing" the Opposition', Journal of Communication 35, no. 3 (1985): 135-46
215. William Hoynes and David Croteau, 'The Chosen Few: Nightline and the Politics of Public Affairs Television', Critical Sociology 18, no. 1 (1991): 19-34
216. Richard A. Brody, 'Crisis, War, and Public Opinion: The Media and Public Support for the President', in Taken by Storm: The Media, Public Opinion and US Foreign Policy in the Gulf War, eds Lance Bennet and David Paletz (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 210-27
217. Frank Dardis, 'Marginalization Devices in U.S. Press Coverage of Iraq War Protest: A Content Analysis', Mass Communication and Society 9, no. 2 (2006): 117-35.
218. Bernard Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963)
219. Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1973)
220. Michael Schudson, 'The Sociology of News Production', Media, Culture, and Society 11, no. 3 (1989): 263-82
221. Gans G., Deciding What's News
222. Gamson, and Modigliani, 'Media Discourse'.
223. Gadi Wolfsfeld, Media and Political Conflict: News from the Middle East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 5.
224. Nayda Terkildsen and Frauke Schnell, 'How Media Frames Move Public Opinion: An Analysis of the Women's Movement', Political Research Quarterly 50, no. 4 (1997): 879-900
225. Snow, and Benford, 'Master Frames', 629.
226. Scott Hunt and Patrick Mooney, 'A Repertoire of Interpretations: Master Frames and Ideological Continuity in US Agrarian Mobilisation', Sociological Quarterly 37, no. 1 (1996): 177-97
227. Van Gorp, 'The Constructionist Approach', 68
228. Hans-Bernd Brosius and Peter Eps, 'Prototyping through Key Events: News Selection in the Case of Violence against Aliens and Asylum Seekers in Germany', European Journal of Communication 10, no. 3 (1995): 391-412
229. Jane Poulsen and James Jasper, 'Recruiting Strangers and Friends: Moral Shocks and Social Networks in Animal Rights and Anti-Nuclear Protests', Social Problems 42, no. 4 (1995): 493-512.
230. Entman, 'Framing'.
231. D'Angelo, 'News Framing', 871.
232. Daniel Hallin and Todd Gitlin, 'The Gulf War as Popular Culture and as Television Drama', in Taken by Storm, eds Bennett and Paletz, 159.
233. Ibid., 151.
234. D'Angelo, 'News Framing', 876
235. Taureck, 'Securitization Theory'.