The war over Iraq: Selling war to the American public

Security Studies

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 106-139

  Western, Jon ^a  

^a MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 29244474080     PISSN: 09636412     EISSN: 15561852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09636410591002518     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Condoleezza Rice, "9/11 for the Record," Washington Post, 22 March 2004, A21.
2. Bob Woodward, Bush at War (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003), 99.
3. See Louis Klarevas, "The 'Essential Domino' of Military Operations: American Public Opinion and the Use of Force," International Studies Perspectives3, no. 4 (November 2002): 417-37.
4. Steven Kuli and I. M. Destler, Misreading the Public: The Myth of a New Isolationism (Washington: Brookings institution Press, 1999), 77-80.
5. Peter Feaver and Christopher Gelpi, Choosing Your Battles: American Civil-Military Relations and the Use of Force (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 7, 136.
6. Bruce Jentleson, "The Pretty Prudent Public: Post Post-Vietnam American Opinion on the Use of Force," International Studies Quarterly 36 (March 1992): 49-74;
7. and Bruce Jentleson and Rebecca L. Britton, "Still Pretty Prudent: Post-Cold War American Public Opinion on the Use of Military Force," Journal of Conflict Resolution 42 (August 1998): 395-417.
8. Jentleson and Britton, "Still Pretty Prudent."
9. Richard Brody, "International Crises: A Rallying Point for the President?" Public Opinion 6 (December/January 1983-84): 41.
10. John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992);
11. Erik Larson, Casualties and Consensus: The Historical Role of Casualties in Domestic Support for U.S. Military Operations (Santa Monica: Rand, 1996);
12. and Louis Klarevas, "American Public Opinion on Peace Operations: The Cases of Somalia, Rwanda, and Haiti," Ph.D. diss., American University, 1999.
13. See, for example, Theodore Lowi, "Making Democracy Safe for the World: On Fighting the Next War," in American Foreign Policy: Theoretical Essays, ed. G. John Ikenberry (Glenview: Scott, Foresman, 1989), 268-73.
14. See Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans' Policy Preferences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), esp. chaps. 4 and 5.
15. "U.S. General Population Topline Report," WorldViews 2002 (Chicago: Chicago Council on Foreign Relations and the German Marshall Fund of the United States, October 2002), 89-100.
16. David W. Moore, "Americans Believe U.S. Participation in Gulf War a Decade Ago Worthwhile: Small Majority Favor New War to Remove Saddam Hussein from Power," 26 February 2001, at http://www.gallup.com/content/default. aspx?ci=1963&pg=1, accessed 1 June 2004.
17. David W. Moore, "Support Increasing for Military Action with Iraq: Men in Favor, Women Opposed," 5 February 1998, at http://www.gallup.com/ content/default.aspx?ci=4252&pg=1, accessed 1 June 2004.
18. George W. Bush, "Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation," 11 September 2001, at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/ 2001/09/20010911-16.html, accessed 1 June 2004.
19. Woodward, Bush at War, 49.
20. Woodward, Bush at War, 83-92.
21. Eliot A. Cohen, "World War IV," Wall Street Journal, 20 November 2001, A18.
22. Gallup Poll, "Iraq," Tuesday Briefing, at http://www.gallup. com/content/default.aspx?ci=1633&pg=3, accessed 30 June 2004.
23. Woodward, Bush at War, 88, 94-97.
24. See, for example, John Mueller, War, Presidents, and Public Opinion (New York: Wiley, 1972);
25. and Richard Sobel, The Impact of Public Opinion on Foreign Policy since Vietnam: Constraining the Colossus (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
26. Woodward, Bush at War, 95.
27. Woodward, Bush at War, 227.
28. Colin L. Powell, "U.S. Forces: Challenges Ahead," Foreign Affairs 71, no. 5 (winter 1992-93): 38-41.
29. President Bush expressed his concern on sustaining public support to Woodward. See Woodward, Bush at War, 95.
30. This view was shared by Gallup polling analysts. See Ben Klima, "American Opinion: Should Saddam Be Worried?" Gallup Poll Tuesday Briefing, 15 January 2002, http://www.gallup.com/poll/content/?ci=5176, accessed 1 October 2004.
31. James Moore and Wayne Slater, Bush's Brain: How Karl Rove Made George W. Bush Presidential (New York: Wiley, 2003), 288-91.
32. According to Bush's speechwriter at the time, David Frum, Bush "needed something to assert, something that made clear that September 11 and Saddam Hussein were linked after all and that for the safety of the world, Saddam Hussein must be defeated rather than deterred." David Frum, The Right Man (New York: Random House, 2003), 233.
33. Karen DeYoung and Dana Millbank, "U.S. Repeats Warnings on Terrorism; Bush Urges Other Nations To 'Get Their House in Order'," Washington Post, 1 February 2002, A1.
34. George W. Bush, "State of the Union Address," 29 January 2002, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/iraq/20020129-11. html (emphasis added).
35. "Yes They Are Evil," Washington Post, 3 February 2002, B7.
36. Daniel Rubin, "U.S. Warns NATO on Iraq; Allies Urged to Join New War on Terrorism, or America Will Go It Alone," Pittsburgh Post Gazette, 3 February 2002, A1.
37. George W. Bush, "Remarks by the President at 2002 Graduation Exercise of the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York," 1 June 2002, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/06/ 20020601-3.html.
38. Gallup Poll, "Iraq," Tuesday Briefing, at http://www.gallup. com/content/default.aspx?ci=1633&pg=3, accessed 14 April 2004.
39. "U.S. General Population Topline Report," 89-100.
40. Morton M. Kondrake, "Congress Should Hold Great Debate over Policy on Iraq," Roll Call, 27 June 2002.
41. David E. Sanger and Thom Shanker, "Exploring Baghdad Strike as Iraq Option," New York Times, 29 July 2002, A1.
42. "The Long Road," Frontline (PBS), transcript at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/longroad/etc/script.html, accessed 1 June 2004.
43. Brent Scowcroft, "Don't Attack Saddam," Wall Street Journal, 15 August 2002, A12.
44. Lawrence Eagleburger, interview on Fox News, transcript at http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,60704,00.html, accessed 1 June 2004.
45. James A. Baker III "The Right Way to Change a Regime," New York Times, 25 August 2002, sec. 4, p. 9.
46. Dick Cheney, "Vice President Speaks at 103rd National Convention," at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/08/iraq/ 20020826.html, accessed 1 June 2004.
47. CNN/USA Today/Gallup poll, 5 September 2002, Polling the Nations Database, http://poll.orspub.com/poll/lpext.dll?f=templates&fn=main-h.htm, accessed 2 October 2004.
48. CBS/New York Times Poll, 7 September 2002, Polling the Nations Database, accessed 2 October 2004.
49. Time, for example, reported that Powell was so "frustrated" that he told his aides he would leave the administration at the end of the current term. See Massimo Calibrisi, "Colin Powell: Planning for an Exit," Time, 9 September 2002, 14.
50. "Blair's War," Frontline (PBS), transcript at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/blair/etc/script.html, accessed 1 June 2004.
51. Bob Woodward, Plan of Attack (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), 168.
52. Elisabeth Buhmiller, "Bush Aides Set Strategy to Sell Policy on Iraq," New York Times, 7 September 2002, A1.
53. Woodward, Plan of Attack, 172.
54. Karen DeYoung and Mike Allen, "Disarm Iraq Quickly, Bush to Urge U.N.; Failure to Move May Lead to U.S. Action," Washington Post, 7 September 2002, A1;
55. and David E. Sanger, "Blair, Meeting with Bush, Fully Endorses U.S. Plans for Ending Iraqi Threat," New York Times, 8 September 2002, 23.
56. "With Few Variations, Top Bush Advisers Present Their Case against Iraq," New York Times, 9 September 2002, A8.
57. Todd S. Purdam, "Bush Officials Say Time Has Come for Action on Iraq," New York Times, 9 September 2002, A1.
58. George W. Bush, "President's Remarks at the United Nations General Assembly," 12 September 2002, at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/ 2002/09/20020912-1.html, accessed 31 May 2004.
59. James A. Baker III, "The U.N. Route," Washington Post, 15 September 2002, B7.
60. CBS News, 24 September 2002, Polling the Nations Database, accessed 2 October 2004.
61. CNN/USA Today/Gallup poll, 23 August 2002, Polling the Nations Database, accessed 2 October 2004.
62. CBS/New York Times poll, 7 September 2002, Polling the Nations Database, accessed 2 October 2004.
63. Fox News/Opinion Dynamics Poll, 12 September 2002, Polling the Nations Database, accessed 2 October 2004.
64. CBS/New York Times poll, 7 September 2002.
65. Jim Vandehei and Karen DeYoung, "Bush to Seek Broad Power on Iraq," Washington Post, 19 September 2002, A1.
66. "Text of Proposed Resolution," Washington Post, 20 September 2002, A20.
67. David W. Moore, "Powell Remains Most Popular Political Figure in America," Gallup News Service, 30 September 2002, at http://www.gallup.com/ poll/content/?ci=6886, accessed 1 June 2004.
68. Woodward, Plan of Attack, 187.
69. Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber, Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush's War on Iraq (New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin, 2003), 56-60.
70. Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber, Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush's War on Iraq (2003), 56-60. Ibid.;
71. and Joe Hagan, "She's Richard Perle's Oyster," New York Observer, 7 April 2003.
72. Michael Massing, Now They Tell Us: The American Press and Iraq (New York: New York Review of Books, 2004).
73. "Support for Potential Military Action Slips to 55%: Party Images Unchanged with a Week to Go," Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, 30 October 2002, http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID= 163, accessed 12 July 2004.
74. Jim Vandehei, "Daschle Angered by Bush Statement; President 'Politicizing' Security Issue, He Says," Washington Post, 26 September 2002, A1.
75. Dana Milbank, "In President's Speeches, Iraq Dominates, Economy Fades," Washington Post, 25 September 2002, A1.
76. "Dow Drops 189; Hits 4 Year Low," Washington Post, 25 September 2002, E3.
77. Margaret Warner interview with Condoleezza Rice, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, transcript no. 7463, 25 September 2002.
78. Eric Schmitt, "Rumsfeld Says U.S. Has 'Bulletproof Evidence of Iraq's Links to Al Qaeda," New York Times, 27 September 2002, A9.
79. Warren Hoge, "Blair Says Iraqis Could Launch Chemical Warheads in Minutes," New York Times, 25 September 2002, A1.
80. Woodward, Plan of Attack, 202.
81. George W. Bush, "President Bush Outlines Iraqi Threat, Remarks by the President on Iraq," Cincinnati, Ohio, 7 October 2002, at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/iraq/20021007-8.html, accessed 1 June 2004.
82. See discussion in Chaim Kaufmann, "Threat Inflation and the Failure of the Marketplace of Ideas: The Selling of the Iraq War," International Security 29, no. 1 (summer 2004): 40.
83. Gary Hart, "Note to Democrats: Get a Defense Policy," New York Times, 3 October 2002, A27.
84. "Americans Thinking about Iraq, but Focused on the Economy," Midterm Election Preview, Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, 10 October 2002, at http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=162, accessed 1 June 2004.
85. David E. Sanger, Eric Schmitt, and Thom Shanker, "War Plan for Iraq Calls for Big Force and Quick Strike," New York Times, 10 November 2002, 1.
86. Woodward, Plan of Attack, 220-27.
87. Colum Lynch, "Security Council Resolution Tells Iraq It Must Disarm; Baghdad Ordered to Admit Inspectors or Face Consequences," Washington Post, 10 November 2002, A26.
88. Colin L. Powell, "Baghdad's Moment of Truth," Washington Post, 10 November 2002, B7.
89. Karen DeYoung and Walter Pincus, "Iraq Hunt to Extend to March, Blix Says; Arms Search Timetable Complicates U.S. Plans," Washington Post, 14 January 2003, A1.
90. Woodward, Plan of Attack, 254.
91. Condoleezza Rice, "Why We Know Iraq Is Lying," New York Times, 23 January 2003, 25.
92. Woodward, Plan of Attack, 288-92.
93. George W. Bush, "State of the Union Address," 28 January 2003, at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/iraq/20030128-19.html, accessed 1 June 2004.
94. Woodward, Plan of Attack, 291.
95. "Irrefutable," Washington Post, 6 February 2003, A36.
96. "The Case against Iraq," New York Times, 6 February 2003, A38.
97. CNN/USA Today/Gallup poll, 31 January 2003, Polling the Nations Database, accessed 2 October 2004.
98. CNN/USA Today/Gallup Poll, 5 February 2003, Polling the Nations Database, accessed 2 October 2004.
99. Douglas Jehl and David E. Sanger, "Prewar Assessment on Iraq Saw Chance of Strong Divisions," New York Times, 28 September 2004, 1.
100. Daniel Okrent, "Weapons of Mass Destruction? Or Mass Distraction?" New York Times, 30 May 2004, sec. 4, p. 2.
101. See also Michael Massing, "Now They Tell Us," New York Review of Books, 26 February 2004, 43-49.
102. "The Times and Iraq," New York Times, 26 May 2004, 6.
103. Eric Schmitt, "Pentagon Contradicts General on Iraq Occupation Force's Size," New York Times, 28 February 2003, A1.
104. Eric Schmitt, "Pentagon Contradicts General on Iraq Occupation Force's Size," New York Times, 2003, A1. Ibid.
105. On public opinion in 2004, see Joseph Carroll, "American Public Opinion about the Situation in Iraq," 29 June 2004, at http://www.gallup. com/poll/focus/sr030610.asp, accessed 30 June 2004. On Vietnam-era public opinion,
106. see Mueller, War, Presidents, and Public Opinion;
107. and Sobel, Impact of Public Opinion on Foreign Policy.