Implications of channel flow analogue models for extrusion of the Higher Himalayan Shear Zone with special reference to the out-of-sequence thrusting

International Journal of Earth Sciences

Volumn 101, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 253-272

  Mukherjee, Soumyajit ^a   Koyi, Hemin A ^b   Talbot, Christopher J ^b  

^a INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY   (India)

^b UPPSALA UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Analogue models; Channel flow; Detachment; Ductile shearing; Higher Himalayan Shear Zone; Polydimethylsiloxane

Indexed keywords

ANALOG MODEL; CHANNEL FLOW; DEFORMATION; DETACHMENT FAULT; FLOW MODELING; PRESSURE GRADIENT; SHEAR ZONE; THRUST;

HIMALAYAS;

EID: 84855313604     PISSN: 14373254     EISSN: 14373262     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00531-011-0650-6     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Whitney DL, Evans BW (2010) Abbreviations for names of rock-forming minerals. Am Mineral 95: 185-187.
2. Ashish, Padhi A, Rai SS et al (2009) Seismological evidence for shallow crustal melt beneath the Garhwal High Himalaya, India: implications for the Himalayan channel flow. Geophys J Int 177: 1111-1120. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1365-246X. 2009. 04112. x.
3. Beaumont C, Jamieson RA, Nguyen MH et al (2001) Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation. Nature 414: 738-742. doi: 10. 1038/414738a.
4. Beaumont C, Jamieson RA, Nguyen MH et al (2004) Crustal channel flows: 1. Numerical models with applications to the tectonics of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. J Geophys Res 109: 1-29. doi: 10. 1029/2003JB002809.
5. Acharya SK, Ray KK (1977) Geology of the Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya. In: Guide to Excursion No. 4 Fourth International Gondwana Symposium, India, report. 25 pp, Calcutta, India.
6. Blythe AE, Burbank DW, Carter A (2007) Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 1. Apatite and zircon fission track and apatite [U-Th]/He analyses. Tectonics 26: TC3002. doi: 10. 1029/2006TC001990.
7. Burbank DW (2005) Earth science: cracking the Himalaya. Nature 434: 963-964. doi: 10. 1038/434963a; http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v434/n7036/full/434963a.html.
8. Burchfiel BC, Chen Z, Hodges KV et al (1992) The South Tibetan detachment system, Himalayan orogen: extension contemporaneous with and parallel to shortening in a collisional mountain belt. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 269: 1-41.
9. Burbank DW, Blythe AE, Putkonen J et al (2003) Decoupling of erosion and precipitation in the Himalayas. Nature 426: 652-654. doi: 10. 1038/nature02187; http://projects.crustal.ucsb.edu/nepal/publications/Burbank_etal2003.pdf.
10. Carosi R, Montomili C, Visonà D (2007) A structural transect in the lower Dolpo: insights in the tectonic evolution of Western Nepal. J Asian Earth Sci 29: 407-423. doi: 10. 1016/j. jseaes. 2006. 05. 001.
11. Caldwell WB, Klemperer SL, Rai SS et al (2009) Partial melt in the upper-middle crust of the northwest Himalaya revealed by Rayleigh wave dispersion. Tectonophysics 477: 58-65. doi: 10. 1016/j. tecto. 2009. 01. 013.
12. Catlos EJ, Harrison TM, Kohn MJ et al (2001) Geochronologic and thermobarometric constraints on the evolution of the Main Central Thrust, central Nepal Himalaya. J Geophys Res 106: 16177-16204. doi: 10. 1029/2000JB900375.
13. Chambers JA, Argles TW, Horstwood MSA et al (2008) Tectonic implications of Palaeoproterozoic anatexis and Late Miocene metamorphism in the Lesser Himalayan Sequence, Sutlej valley, NW India. J Geol Soc Lond 165: 725-737. doi: 10. 1144/0016-76492007/090.
14. Carosi R, Montomoli C, Rubatto D et al (2010) Late oligocene high temperature shear zones in the core of the Higher Himalayan Crystallines (Lower Dolpo, western Nepal). Tectonics 29: TC4029. doi: 10. 1029/2008TC002400.
15. Coleman ME (1998) U-Pb constraints on oligocene miocene deformation and anatexis within the central Himalaya, Marshyandi valley, Nepal. Am J Sci 298: 553-571.
16. Chambers J, Parrish R, Argles T et al (2011) A short duration pulse of ductile normal shear on the outer South Tibetan Detachment in Bhutan: alternating channel flow and critical taper mechanics of the eastern Himalaya. Tectonics (in press).
17. Dewey L (2008) Continental lower-crustal flow: channel flow and laminar flow. Earth Sci Frontiers 15: 130-139. doi: 10. 1016/S1872-5791(08)60065-2.
18. Dèzes PJ, Vannay JC, Steck A et al (1999) Synorogenic extension: quantitative constraints on the age and displacement of the Zanskar shear Zone. Geol Soc Am Bull 111: 364-374. doi: 10. 1130/0016-7606(1999)111& 0364: SEQCOT> 2. 3. CO; 2.
19. Depietro JA, Pogue KR (2004) Tectonostratigraphic subdivision of the Himalaya-a view from the west. Tectonics 23: TC5001. doi: 10. 1029/2003TC001554.
20. Ganguly J, Dasgupta S, Cheng W et al (2000) Exhumation history of a section of the Sikkim Himalayas, India: records in the metamorphic mineral equilibria and compositional zoning of garnet. Earth Planet Sci Lett 183: 471-486. doi: 10. 1016/S0012-821X(00)00280-6.
21. Garzanti W, Vezzoli G, Andò S et al (2007) Quantifying sand provenance and erosion (Marsyandi River, Nepal Himalaya). Earth Planet Sci Lett 258: 500-515. doi: 10. 1016/j. epsl. 2007. 04. 010.
22. Godin L, Parrish RR, Brown RL et al (2001) Crustal thickening leading to exhumation of the Himalayan metamorphic core of central Nepal; insight from U-Pb geochronology and 40Ar/39Ar thermochronology. Tectonics 20: 729-747.
23. Exner U (2005) Analog modelling of flanking structures. Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, ETH, pp 65-78.
24. Godin L, Grujic D, Law, RD et al (2006) Channel flow, extrusion and extrusion in continental collision zones: an introduction. In: Law RD, Searle MP (eds) Channel flow, extrusion and extrusion in continental collision zones. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 268: 1-23. doi: 10. 1144/GSL. SP. 2006. 268. 01. 01.
25. Goscombe B, Gray D, Hand M (2006) Crustal architecture of the Himalayan metamorphic font in eastern Nepal. Gond Res 10: 232-255. doi: 10. 1016/j. gr. 2006. 05. 003.
26. Godin L, Yakymchuk C, Harris LB (2011) Himalayan hinterland-verging superstructure folds related to foreland-directed infrastructure ductile flow: insights from centrifuge analogue modeling. J Struct Geol 33: 329-342. doi: 10. 1016/j. jsg. 2010. 09. 005.
27. Graveleau F, Dominguez S (2008) Analogue modelling of the interaction between tectonics, erosion and sedimentation in foreland thrust belts. C R Geosci 340: 324-333. doi: 10. 1016/j. crte. 2008. 01. 005.
28. Grasemann B, Edwards MA, Wiesmayr G (2006) Kinematic dilatancy effects on orogenic extrusion. In: Law RD, Searle MP, Godin L (eds) Channel flow, ductile extrusion and extrusion in continental collisional zones. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 268: 183-199. doi: 10. 1144/GSL. SP. 2006. 268. 01. 08.
29. Grujic D, Casey M, Davidson C (1996) Ductile extrusion of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline in Bhutan: evidence from quartz microfabrics. Tectonophysics 260: 21-43. doi: 10. 1016/0040-1951(96)00074-1.
30. Grujic D, Hollister LS, Parrish RR (2002) Himalayan metamorphic sequence as an orogenic channel: insight from Bhutan. Earth Planet Sci Lett 198: 177-191. doi: 10. 1016/S0012-821X(02)00482-X.
31. Harris N (2007) Channel flow and the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen: a critical review. J Geol Soc London 164: 511-523. doi: 10. 1144/0016-76492006-133.
32. Grujic D (2006) Channel flow and continental collision tectonics: an overview. In: Law RD, Searle MP (eds) Channel flow, extrusion and exhumation in continental collision zones. Geol oc Lond Spec Publ 268: 25-37. doi: 10. 1144/GSL. SP. 2006. 268. 01. 02.
33. Harrison TM, Ryerson FJ, Le Fort P et al (1997) A Late Miconce-Pliocene origin for the Central Himalayan inverted metamorphism. Earth Planet Sci Lett 146: E1-E7. doi: 10. 1016/S0012-821X(96)00215-4.
34. Hauck ML, Nelson KD, Brown LD et al (1998) Crustal structure of the Himalayan orogen at 900 east longitude from project INDEPTH deep seismic reflection profiles. Tectonics 17: 481-500. doi: 10. 1029/98TC01314.
35. Harrison TM (2006) Did the Himalayan Crystallines extrude partially molten from beneath the Tibetan Plateau? In: Law RD, Searle MP, Godin L (eds) Channel flow, ductile extrusion and exhumation in continental collision zones. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 268: 237-254.
36. Hodges KV, Parrish RR, Searle MP (1996) Tectonic evolution of the central Annapurna Range, Nepalese Himalayas. Tectonics 15: 1264-1291.
37. Hodges KV, Wobus C, Ruhl K et al (2004) Quaternary deformation, river steepening, and heavy precipitation at the front of the Higher Himalayan ranges. Earth Planet Sci Lett 220: 379-389. doi: 10. 1016/S0012-821X(04)00063-9.
38. Hodges KV (2006) A synthesis of the channel flow-extrusion hypothesis as developed for the Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic system. In: Law RD, Searle MP (eds) Channel flow, extrusion and exhumation in continental collision zones. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 268: 71-90. doi: 10. 1144/GSL. SP. 2006. 268. 01. 04.
39. Imayama T, Takeshita T, Arita K (2010) Metamorphic P-T profile and P-T path discontinuity across the far-eastern Nepal Himalaya: investigation of channel flow models. J Meta Geol 28: 527-549. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1525-1314. 2010. 00879. x.
40. Jain AK, Anand A (1988) Deformational and strain patterns of an intracontinental ductile shear zone- an example from the Higher Garhwal Himalaya. J Struct Geol 10: 717-734. doi: 10. 1016/0191-8141(88)90079-X.
41. Jain AK, Kumar D, Singh S et al (2000) Timing, quantification and tectonic modelling of pliocene-quaternary movements in the NW Himalaya: evidences from fission track dating. Earth Planet Sci Lett 179: 437-451. doi: 10. 1016/S0012-821X(00)00133-3.
42. Hollister LS, Grujic D (2006) Himalaya Tiber Plateau. Pulsed channel flow in Bhutan. In: Law RD, Searle MP, Godin L (eds) Channel flow, ductile extrusion and extrusion in continental collision zones. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 268: 415-423. doi: 10. 1144/GSL. SP. 2006. 268. 01. 19.
43. Jain AK, Singh S, Manickavasagam RM (2002) Himalayan collisional tectonics. Gond Res Gp Mem No. 7. Field Science, Hashimoto.
44. Jain AK, Mukherjee S, Singh S (2005) Great Himalayan orogenic channel: its structure and tectonic patterns. Abstract number: 58-SE-A1226. Solid Earth. Asia Oceania Geosciences Society. 2nd Annual General Meeting 20-24 June 2005, Singapore. http://www.asiaoceania.org/abstract/se/58-SE-A1226.pdf.
45. Jamieson RA, Beaumont C, Medvedev S et al (2004) Crustal channel flows: 2. Numerical models with implications for metamorphism in the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen. J Geophys Res 109: B06407. doi: 10. 1029/2003JB002811.
46. Jamieson RA, Beaumont C, Nguyen P et al (2006) Provenance of the greater himalayan sequence and associated rocks: predictions of channel flow models. In: Law RD, Searle MP (eds) Channel flow, extrusion and extrusion in continental collision zones. Geological Soc Lond Spec Publ 268: 165-182. doi: 10. 1144/GSL. SP. 2006. 268. 01. 07.
47. Kirstein LA, Sinclair H, Stuart FM et al (2006) Rapid early Miocene exhumation of the Ladakh batholith, western Himalaya. Geol Soc Am 34: 1049-1052.
48. Kohn MJ (2008) P-T-t data from central Nepal support critical taper and reduplicate large-scale channel flow of the Greater Himalayan sequence. Geol Soc Am Bull 120: 259-273. doi: 10. 1130/B26252. 1.
49. Koyi H (1991) Mushroom diapirs penetrating into high viscous overburden. Geology 19: 1229-1232.
50. Koyi H (1997) Analogue modelling: from a qualitative to a quantitative technique, a historical outline. J Petrol Geol 20: 223-238.
51. Jessup MJ, Law RD, Searle MP et al (2006) Structural evolution and vorticity of flow during extrusion and exhumation of the Greater Himalayan Slab, Mount Everest Massif, Tibet/Nepal: implications for orogen-scale flow partitioning, vol 268. Geological Society of London, Special Publication, pp 379-413. doi: 10. 1144/GSL. SP. 2006. 268. 01. 18.
52. Larson J, Godin L (2009) Kinematics of the Greater Himalayan sequence, Dhaulagiri Himal: implications for the structural framework of the central Nepal Himalaya. J Geol Soc Lond 166: 25-43.
53. Law R, Searle MP, Simpson RL (2004) Strain, deformation temperatures and vorticity of flow at the top of the Greater Himalayan Slab, Everest Massif, Tibet. J Geol Soc Lond 161: 305-320. doi: 10. 1144/0016-764903-047.
54. LeCureux F, Burnett J (1975) Graphical methods used in the numerical solution of Jeffery-Hamel flow at fixed flow rates. Comput Graph 1: 233-238. doi: 10. 1016/0097-8493(75)90013-8.
55. Lee J, Whitehouse MJ (2007) Onset of midcrustal extensional flow in southern Tibet: evidence from U/Pb zircon ages. Geology 35: 45-48.
56. Leech ML (2008) Does the Karakoram fault interrupt mid-crustal channel flow in the western Himalaya? Earth Planet Sci Lett 276: 314-322. doi: 10. 1016/j. epsl. 2008. 10. 006.
57. Leloup PH, Mahèo G, Arnaud N et al (2010) The South Tibet detachment shear zone in the Dinggye area Time constraints on extrusion models of the Himalayas. Earth Planet Sci Lett 292: 1-16.
58. Langille J, Lee J, Hacker B et al (2010) Middle crustal ductile deformation patterns in southern Tibet: insights from vorticity studies in Mabja Dome. J Struct Geol 32: 70-85. doi: 10. 1016/j. jsg. 2009. 08. 009.
59. Martin A, DeCelles P, Gehrels GE et al (2005) Isotopic and structural constraints on the location of the Main Central thrust in the Annapurna Range, central Nepal Himalaya. Geol Soc Am Bull 117: 926-944. doi: 10. 1130/B25646. 1.
60. Massey BS (1975) Mechanics of fluids, 3rd edn edn. van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, p 145.
61. McQuarrie N, Robinson D, Long S et al (2008) Preliminary stratigraphic and structural architecture of Bhutan: implications for the along strike architecture of the Himalayan system. Earth Planet Sci Lett 272: 105-117. doi: 10. 1016/j. epsl. 2008. 04. 030.
62. Morley CK (1988) Out-of-sequence thrusts. Tectonics 7: 539-561.
63. Mandal N (2008) Glimpse of experimental structural geology in India. In: Singhvi A, Bhattacharya A, Guha S (eds) Glimpse of geoscience research in India. The Indian Report to IUGS 2004-2008. pp 153-157. URL: http://www.iypeinsa.org/updates-09/art-30.pdf.
64. Mukherjee S (2005) Channel flow, ductile extrusion and exhumation of lower-middle crust in continental collision zones. Curr Sci 89: 435-436. http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/aug102005/435.pdf.
65. Mukherjee S (2007) Geodynamics, deformation and mathematical analysis of metamorphic belts of the NW Himalaya. Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, pp 1-267.
66. Mukherjee S (2010a) Structures at meso and micro-scales in the Sutlej section of the Higher Himalayan Shear Zone in Himalaya. e-Terra 7(1): 1-27. http://metododirecto.pt/ojs/index.php/e-terra/article/view/33/21.
67. Mukherjee S (2010c) Estimating the viscosity of rock bodies-a comparison between the Hormuz and the Namakdan salt diapirs in the Persian Gulf, and the Tso Morari Gneiss dome in the Himalaya. J Indian Geophys Union, (Submitted).
68. Mukherjee S (2010b) Microstructures of the Zanskar Shear Zone. Earth Sci India 3(I): 9-27. http://www.earthscienceindia.info/PDF/Mukerjee.pdf.
69. Mukherjee S, Koyi HA (2010a) Higher Himalayan Shear Zone, Sutlej section- structural geology and extrusion mechanism by various combinations of simple shear, pure shear and channel flow in shifting modes. Int J Earth Sci 99: 1267-1303. doi: 10. 1007/s00531-009-0459-8.
70. Mukherjee S, Koyi HA (2010b) Higher Himalayan Shear Zone, Zanskar Indian Himalaya-microstructural studies and extrusion mechanism by a combination of simple shear and channel flow. Int J Earth Sci 99: 1083-1110. doi: 10. 1007/s00531-009-0447-z.
71. Mukherjee S, Jain AK (2004) Numerical modeling, deformation and exhumation patterns in the Higher Himalayan channel, Sutlej Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. Abstract. In: Channel flow, ductile extrusion and exhumation of lower-mid crust in continental collision zones. Geological Society of London, Burlington House, 6-7 December.
72. Mukherjee S, Mulchrone K (2011) Estimating the viscosity of the Tso Morari Gneiss dome, western Indian Himalaya. Int J Earth Sci (submitted).
73. Mukherjee S, Talbot CJ, Koyi HA (2010) Viscosity estimates of salt in the Hormuz and Namakdan salt diapirs, Persian Gulf. Geol Mag 147: 497-507.
74. Mukherjee S, Koyi HA, Talbot CJ (2009) Out-of-sequence thrust in the Higher Himalaya-a review and possible genesis, vol 11. EGU2009-13783. European Geosciences Union General Assembly. Geophys Res Abs. Vienna, Austria, 19-24 April. http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU2009/EGU2009-13783.pdf.
75. Mukherjee S, Jain L, Samajdar I et al (2011) In-grain variation of strain in the Tso Morari Gneiss dome (Indian western Himalaya) revealed by EBSD studies supports its channel flow extrusion (submitted).
76. Pai S-I (1956) Viscous flow theory I-laminar flow. van Nostrand Company Inc, D. New Jersey, p 51.
77. Paul A, Bhakuni SS, Pant CC et al (2010) Microseismicity in central part of the Inner Kuamaun Lesser Himalaya: implication to active seismotectonics. Him Geol 31: 107-115.
78. Ramberg H (1981) Gravity, deformation and the Earth's crust in theory experiments and geological applications, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London, pp 5-6.
79. Owen LA (2010) Landscape development of the Himalayan-Tibet orogen: a review. In: Kusky TM, Zhai M-G, Xiao W (eds) The evolving continents: understanding processes of continental growth. Geol Soc Lond Spec Pub 338: 389-407.
80. Robinson DM, DeCelles PG, Garzione CN et al (2003) Kinematic model for the main central thrust in Nepal. Geology 31: 359-362. doi: 10. 1130/0091-7613(2003)031& 0359: KMFTMC> 2. 0. CO; 2.
81. Robinson D, DeCelles PG, Copeland P (2006) Tetconic evolution of the Himalayan thrust belt in western Nepal: Implications for channel flow models. Geol Soc Am Bull 118: 865-885. doi: 10. 1130/B25911. 1.
82. Rowe CD (2007) Comparison between three out-of-sequence thrusts from Japan and Alaska: implications for Nankai drilling targets from the rock record. Sci Drill 1: 82-83 special edition.
83. Schlichting H, Gersten K (1999) Boundary layer theory. 8th revised enlarged edition. Springer, Berlin, pp 101-104.
84. Searle MP (1999) Extensional and compressional faults in the Everest-Lhotse massif, Khumbu Himalaya, Nepal. J Geol Soc Lond 156: 227-240. doi: 10. 1144/gsjgs. 156. 2. 0227.
85. Searle MP, Rex AJ (1989) Thermal model for the Zanskar Himalaya. J Meta Petrol 7: 127-134.
86. Searle MP, Simpson RL, Law RD (2003) The structural geometry, metamorphic and magmatic evolution of the Everest massif, High Himalaya of Nepal-South Tibet. J Geol Soc Lond 160: 345-366. doi: 10. 1144/0016-764902-126.
87. Stephenson BJ, Waters DJ, Searle MP (2000) Inverted metamorphism and the Main Central Thrust: field relations and thermobarometric constraints from the Kishtwar Window, NW Indian Himalaya. J Meta Geol 18: 571-590. doi: 10. 1046/j. 1525-1314. 2000. 00277. x.
88. Stüwe K (2007) Geodynamics of the lithosphere, 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin, p 325.
89. Swapp SM, Hollister LS (1991) Inverted metamorphism within the Tibetan slab of Bhutan: evidence for a tectonically transported heat source. Can Mineral 29: 1019-1041.
90. Sykes JB, Reid WH (1984) Fluid mechanics, 2nd edn. Pergamon, Oxford, pp 76-81.
91. Talbot CJ, Aftabi P (2004) Geology and models of salt extrusion at Qum Kuh, central Iran. J Geol Soc Lond 161: 321-334. doi: 10. 1144/0016-764903-102.
92. Thakur VC (1992) Geology of Western Himalaya. Pergamon, Oxford.
93. Rivers T (2009) The Grenville province as a large hot long-duration collisional orogen-insights from the spatial and thermal evolution of its orogenic fronts. In: Murphy JB, Keppie JD, Hynes AJ (eds) Ancient orogens and modern analogues. Geol Soc Lond Spec Pub 327: 405-444.
94. Tobgay T (2005) Unique topography of the Bhutan Himalaya: implications for active tectonics. ETD Collection for University of Texas, El Paso, Paper AAI1430972. URL: http://digitalcommons.utep.edu/dissertations/AAI1430972.
95. Vannay J-C, Grasemann B (2001) Himalayan inverted metamorphism and syn-convergence extension as a consequence of a general shear extrusion. Geol Mag 138: 253-276. doi: 10. 1017/S0016756801005313.
96. Vannay J-C, Hodges KV (1996) Tectonomorphic evolution of the Himalayan metamorphic core between the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri, central Nepal. J Meta Geol 14: 635-656.
97. Tobgay T, Hurtado JM Jr (2004) Active uplift in the Bhutan Himalaya as indicated by bedrock river profiles. In: Denver annual meeting. Geological Society of America abstracts with programs, vol 36, p 505.
98. Vannay JC, Grasemann B, Rahn M et al (2004) Miocene to holocene exhumation of metamorphic crustal wedge in the NW Himalaya: evidence for tectonic extrusion coupled to fluvial erosion. Tectonics 23(TC1014): 1-24. doi: 10. 1029/2002TC001429.
99. Whipple KX (2009) The influence of climate on the tectonic evolution of mountain belts. Nat Geosci 2: 97-104. doi: 10. 1038/ngeo413. URL: http://www.ig.utexas.edu/steep/data/Whipple.2009.climate%20and%20tectonics.pdf.
100. Wobus CW, Hodges KV, Whipple KX (2003) Has focused denudation sustained active thrusting at the Himalayan topographic front? Geology 31: 861-864.
101. Wobus C, Heimsath A, Whipple K et al (2005) Active out-of-sequence thrust faulting in the central Nepalese Himalaya. Nature 434: 1008-1011. doi: 10. 1038/nature03499.
102. Wobus C (2005) Geomorphic and thermochronologic signature of active tectonics in the Central Nepalese Himalaya. Ph. D. thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, pp 1-207.
103. 39Ar thermochronology, and thermal modeling. Tectonics 25: TC4011, doi: 10. 1029/2005TC001935.
104. Wobus C, Pringle M, Whipple K et al (2008) A Late Miocene acceleration of extrusion in the Himalayan crystalline core. Earth Planet Sci Lett 269: 1-10. doi: 10. 1016/j. epsl. 2008. 02. 019.
105. Yin A (2006) Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogen as constrained by along-strike variation of structural geometry, extrusion history, and foreland sedimentation. Earth-Sci Rev 76: 1-131. doi: 10. 1016/j. earscirev. 2005. 05. 004.
106. Yin A, Dubey CS, Kelty TK et al (2006) Structural evolution of the Arunachal Himalaya and implications for asymmetric development of the Himalayan orogen. Curr Sci 90: 195-206. http://www. ias. ac. in/currsci/jan252006/195. pdf.