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Volumn 95, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 2099-2179

Children's constitutional rights

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EID: 84055193565     PISSN: 00265535     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (19)

References (201)
  • 1
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    • Children's rights: A framework for analysis
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    • Michael S. Wald, Children's Rights: A Framework for Analysis, 12 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 255, 256 (1979
    • (1979) U.C. Davis L. Rev. , vol.12 , pp. 255
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  • 2
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    • Jeremy Waldron ed.
    • See, e.g., Jeremy Waldron, Introduction to THEORIES OF RIGHTS 1, 9 (Jeremy Waldron ed., 1984). Choice theory is sometimes referred to as the agency or will theory of rights. Many authors have discussed choice theory as applied to children.
    • (1984) Introduction to Theories of Rights , vol.1 , pp. 9
    • Waldron, J.1
  • 3
    • 84055194731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., DAVID ARCHARD, CHILDREN: RIGHTS AND CHILDHOOD 54 (2004) [hereinafter ARCHARD, RIGHTS AND CHILDHOOD] ("If, as many will argue, children are incapable of exercising choice then, according to the will theory at least, they do not have rights.")
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    • Archard, D.1
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    • The rights of the minor: As person, as juvenile, as future adult
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    • Tom D. Campbell, The Rights of the Minor: As Person, As Juvenile, As Future Adult, 6 INT'L J.L. & FAM. 1, 2 (1992) (discussing the implications of the will theory of rights for children)
    • (1992) Int'l J.l. & Fam. , vol.6 , pp. 1
    • Campbell, T.D.1
  • 7
    • 3843130189 scopus 로고
    • Children's rights: A test-case for theories of right
    • Neil MacCormick, Children's Rights: A Test-Case for Theories of Right, in LEGAL RIGHT AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY 154, 156 (1982) (noting that the will theory of rights "suggests that what is common to all types of right is that they make the choice, or the will, of the right-holder paramount in a given relationship"). Some of the major legal works on children's rights present choice theory in the process of critiquing it.
    • (1982) Legal Right and Social Democracy , vol.154 , pp. 156
    • MacCormick, N.1
  • 9
    • 0345089126 scopus 로고
    • Children's liberation and the new egalitarianism: Some reservations about abandoning youth to their "rights"
    • 610-13
    • Bruce C. Hafen, Children's Liberation and the New Egalitarianism: Some Reservations About Abandoning Youth to Their "Rights," 1976 BYU L. REV. 605, 610-13
    • (1976) Byu L. Rev. , pp. 605
    • Hafen, B.C.1
  • 10
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    • Rights for the next generation: A feminist approach to children's rights
    • Martha Minow, Rights for the Next Generation: A Feminist Approach to Children's Rights, 9 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 1, 1-3 (1986) [hereinafter Minow, Rights for the Next Generation]
    • (1986) Harv. Women's L.j. , vol.9 , Issue.1 , pp. 1-3
    • Minow, M.1
  • 11
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    • What ever happened to children's rights?
    • Martha Minow, What Ever Happened to Children's Rights?, 80 MINN. L. REV. 267, 268-78 (1995) [hereinafter Minow, What Ever Happened to Children's Rights?]
    • (1995) Minn. L. Rev. , vol.80 , Issue.267 , pp. 268-278
    • Minow, M.1
  • 12
    • 26644458465 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Children's rights and the problem of equal respect
    • Lee E. Teitelbaum, Children's Rights and the Problem of Equal Respect, 27 HOFSTRA L. REV. 799, 801-04 (1999) [hereinafter Teitelbaum, Children's Rights]
    • (1999) Hofstra L. Rev. , vol.27 , Issue.799 , pp. 801-804
    • Teitelbaum, L.E.1
  • 13
    • 84055225823 scopus 로고
    • Foreword: The meanings of rights of children
    • Lee E. Teitelbaum, Foreword: The Meanings of Rights of Children, 10 N.M. L. REV. 235, 242-52 (1979) [hereinafter Teitelbaum, Foreword]
    • (1979) N.M. L. Rev. , vol.10 , Issue.235 , pp. 242-252
    • Teitelbaum, L.E.1
  • 14
    • 84055225817 scopus 로고
    • "Out of children's needs, children's rights": The child's voice in defining the family
    • Barbara Bennett Woodhouse, "Out of Children's Needs, Children's Rights": The Child's Voice in Defining the Family, 8 BYU J. PUB. L. 321, 322 (1993
    • (1993) Byu J. Pub. L. , vol.8 , Issue.321 , pp. 322
    • Woodhouse, B.B.1
  • 15
    • 84055204703 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 3
    • See, e.g., ARCHARD, RIGHTS AND CHILDHOOD, supra note 3, at 93 ("On the standard liberal account, children lack rational autonomy.")
    • Archard, Rights and Childhood , pp. 93
  • 16
    • 84055225822 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Free speech and children's interests
    • David Archard, Free Speech and Children's Interests, 79 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 83, 91-93 (2004) [hereinafter Archard, Free Speech] ("A child incapable of exercising choice is reasonably disqualified from having liberty rights.")
    • (2004) Chi.-kent L. Rev. , vol.79 , Issue.83 , pp. 91-93
    • Archard, D.1
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    • 78649756874 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Constitutional fidelity through children's rights
    • Emily Buss, Constitutional Fidelity Through Children's Rights, 2004 SUP. CT. REV. 355, 358-59 ("The capacity whose relevance to children's exercise of rights is most commonly noted is the capacity for logical thinking.")
    • (2004) Sup. Ct. Rev. , vol.355 , pp. 358-359
    • Buss, E.1
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    • 1842537872 scopus 로고
    • On the road to reconceiving rights for children: A postfeminist analysis of the capacity principle
    • Katherine Hunt Federle, On the Road to Reconceiving Rights for Children: A Postfeminist Analysis of the Capacity Principle, 42 DEPAUL L. REV. 983, 985 (1993) ("[W]hen discussing the concept of children's rights, the debate invariably returns to the capacity of children.")
    • (1993) Depaul L. Rev. , vol.42 , Issue.983 , pp. 985
    • Federle, K.H.1
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    • 84055225820 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Minow, supra note 3
    • Minow, What Ever Happened to Children's Rights?, supra note 3, at 275 (citing In re Gault, Goss, and Tinker as the first liberationist cases)
    • What Ever Happened to Children's Rights? , pp. 275
  • 20
    • 84919387551 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Teitelbaum supra note 3
    • Teitelbaum, Children's Rights, supra note 3, at 810-12 (identifying In re Gault and Tinker as foundational cases in children's rights jurisprudence)
    • Children's Rights , pp. 810-812
  • 21
    • 84055209040 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • rev. ed.
    • This theory of the close developmental connection between family caregiving and the skills of public life relates to John Rawls's argument in A Theory of Justice that early parental love is the developmental beginning for acquiring a sense of justice. See JOHN RAWLS, A THEORY OF JUSTICE 405-09 (rev. ed. 1999)
    • (1999) A Theory of Justice , pp. 405-409
    • Rawls, J.1
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    • 59149102078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Is the family at odds with equality? the legal implications of equality for children
    • Anne L. Alstott, Is the Family at Odds with Equality? The Legal Implications of Equality for Children, 82 S. CAL. L. REV. 1, 6-10 (2008). In addition to Alstott, other feminists have asserted the deep interconnection between the virtues of caregiving and the liberal value of autonomy.
    • (2008) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.82 , Issue.1 , pp. 6-10
    • Alstott, A.L.1
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    • Reconceiving autonomy: Sources, thoughts and possibilities
    • See, e.g., Jennifer Nedelsky, Reconceiving Autonomy: Sources, Thoughts and Possibilities, 1 YALE J.L. & FEMINISM 7, 12 (1989).
    • (1989) Yale J.l. & Feminism , vol.1 , Issue.7 , pp. 12
    • Nedelsky, J.1
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    • 84055194728 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.S. CENSUS BUREAU
    • See U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, INCOME, POVERTY, AND HEALTH INSURANCE COVERAGE IN THE UNITED STATES: 2007, 12 (2008), available at http://www.census.gov/prod/ 2008pubs/p60-235.pdf (showing eighteen percent of all persons under age eighteen living in poverty in 2007
    • Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2007 , Issue.12 , pp. 2008
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    • On liberty
    • John Gray ed., Oxford Univ. Press
    • John S. Mill's work illustrates the classic view on autonomy. See JOHN S. MILL, On Liberty, in ON LIBERTY AND OTHER ESSAYS 5, 14 (John Gray ed., Oxford Univ. Press 1991) (1859) ("The only part of the conduct of any one, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign."). The literature on autonomy is vast.
    • (1991) On Liberty and Other Essays , vol.5 , pp. 14
    • Mill, J.S.1
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    • 0003956640 scopus 로고
    • JOSEPH RAZ, THE MORALITY OF FREEDOM 369 (1986) ("The ideal of personal autonomy is the vision of people controlling, to some degree, their own destiny, fashioning it through successive decisions throughout their lives.")
    • (1986) The Morality of Freedom , pp. 369
    • Raz, J.1
  • 29
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    • Two senses of autonomy
    • Richard H. Fallon, Jr., Two Senses of Autonomy, 46 STAN. L. REV. 875, 877 (1994) ("To be autonomous, one must be able to form a conception of the good, deliberate rationally, and act consistently with one's goals.")
    • (1994) Stan. L. Rev. , vol.46 , Issue.875 , pp. 877
    • Fallon Jr., R.H.1
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    • Freedom and choice in constitutional law
    • John H. Garvey, Freedom and Choice in Constitutional Law, 94 HARV. L. REV. 1756, 1761 (1981) (justifying age-based restrictions on voting "[s]ince ultimately the ballot functions as a means of self-government, an activity difficult for those incapable of moral and rational choice"
    • (1981) Harv. L. Rev. 1756 , vol.94 , pp. 1761
    • Garvey, J.H.1
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    • The second treatise of government
    • Peter Laslett ed.
    • JOHN LOCKE, The Second Treatise of Government, in TWO TREATISES OF GOVERNMENT 399, § 170 (Peter Laslett ed., 1960) ("Paternal or Parental Power is nothing but that, which Parents have over their Children, to govern them for the Childrens [sic] good, till they come to the use of Reason . . . ."
    • (1960) Two Treatises of Government , vol.399 , Issue.170
    • Locke, J.1
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    • The Court added a third factor in the particular context of the death penalty: "[T]he character of a juvenile is not as well formed as that of an adult." Roper, 543 U.S. at 570 (citing generally E. ERIKSON, IDENTITY: YOUTH AND CRISIS (1968)
    • (1968) Identity: Youth and Crisis
    • Erikson, E.1
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    • JEFFREY BLUSTEIN, PARENTS AND CHILDREN: THE ETHICS OF THE FAMILY 131 (1982) ("[A]utonomy must be developed and fostered by particular psychological and educational circumstances from very early on in childhood.")
    • (1982) Parents and Children: The Ethics of the Family , pp. 131
    • Blustein, J.1
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    • The family and civic life
    • JEAN BETHKE ELSHTAIN, The Family and Civic Life, in POWER TRIPS AND OTHER JOURNEYS: ESSAYS IN FEMINISM AS CIVIC DISCOURSE 45, 49 (1990) ("Liberal and democratic citizenship required the creation of persons with qualities of mind and spirit necessary for civic participation. This creation of citizens was seen as neither simple nor automatic by early liberal theorists . . . ."
    • (1990) Power Trips and Other Journeys: Essays in Feminism As Civic Discourse , vol.45 , pp. 49
    • Elshtain, J.B.1
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    • Developing citizens
    • See Anne C. Dailey, Developing Citizens, 91 IOWA L. REV. 431, 440 (2006) (discussing reformers' commitment as "part of a broader progressive-era movement for democracy that rested on a belief in the importance of educating children for democratic citizenship")
    • (2006) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.91 , Issue.431 , pp. 440
    • Dailey, A.C.1
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    • AMY GUTMANN, DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION 50 (1987) ("Children are first educated by their parents, and so must they continue to be as long as raising children constitutes one of our most valued personal liberties.")
    • (1987) Democratic Education , vol.50
    • Gutmann, A.1
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    • 26244435836 scopus 로고
    • The constitutional status of marriage, kinship, and sexual privacy-balancing the individual and social interests
    • Bruce C. Hafen, The Constitutional Status of Marriage, Kinship, and Sexual Privacy-Balancing the Individual and Social Interests, 81 MICH. L. REV. 463, 477 (1983) ("[T]he family in a democratic society not only provides emotional companionship, but is also a principal source of moral and civic duty."
    • (1983) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.81 , Issue.463 , pp. 477
    • Hafen, B.C.1
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    • Child, parent, state, and the due process clause: An essay on the supreme court's recent work
    • John H. Garvey, Child, Parent, State, and the Due Process Clause: An Essay on the Supreme Court's Recent Work, 51 S. CAL. L. REV. 769, 821 (1978) (noting that the family instills in children "the sense of belonging and having roots in a distinct tradition")
    • (1978) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.51 , Issue.769 , pp. 821
    • Garvey, J.H.1
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    • American ed., Univ. of Notre Dame Press
    • see ALASDAIR MACINTYRE, AFTER VIRTUE: A STUDY IN MORAL THEORY 30 (American ed., Univ. of Notre Dame Press 1981) (observing that the self is more than merely the social roles that it inherits)
    • (1981) After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory , pp. 30
    • MacIntyre, A.1
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    • The procedural republic and the unencumbered self
    • Michael J. Sandel, The Procedural Republic and the Unencumbered Self, 12 POL. THEORY 81, 86 (1984) (presenting the foundations of the unencumbered self "understood as prior to and independent of purposes and ends"), most liberal theorists would acknowledge that children acquire a first set of values from their families of origin.
    • (1984) Pol. Theory , vol.12 , Issue.81 , pp. 86
    • Sandel, M.J.1
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    • 84864860755 scopus 로고
    • The right of privacy
    • see also Jed Rubenfeld, The Right of Privacy, 102 HARV. L. REV. 737, 785 (1989) ("The spectre of an insidious, thought-numbing standardization underlay the Barnette decision . . . .").
    • (1989) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.102 , Issue.737 , pp. 785
    • Rubenfeld, J.1
  • 46
    • 34248394373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Between home and school
    • Laura A. Rosenbury, Between Home and School, 155 U. PA. L. REV. 833, 839 (2007) ("[A]lthough families are major sites for socializing children, states also play a socializing role . . . ."). The state's socializing authority is not restricted to the realm of education. The first Supreme Court decision upholding state parens patriae power involved state regulation of child labor.
    • (2007) U. Pa. L. Rev. , vol.155 , Issue.833 , pp. 839
    • Rosenbury, L.A.1
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    • The prickly problems of pornography
    • quoting Willard M. Gaylin, The Prickly Problems of Pornography, 77 YALE L.J. 579, 592-93 (1968
    • (1968) Yale L.J. , vol.77 , Issue.579 , pp. 592-593
    • Gaylin, W.M.1
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    • 0042279875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reconciling theory and doctrine in first amendment jurisprudence
    • See Robert Post, Reconciling Theory and Doctrine in First Amendment Jurisprudence, 88 CALIF. L. REV. 2353, 2363 (2000) (describing the truth-seeking function of the marketplace of ideas).
    • (2000) Calif. L. Rev. , vol.88 , Issue.2353 , pp. 2363
    • Post, R.1
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    • 12044259091 scopus 로고
    • "He drew a circle that shut me out": Assimilation, indoctrination, and the paradox of a liberal education
    • Nomi Maya Stolzenberg, "He Drew a Circle that Shut Me Out": Assimilation, Indoctrination, and the Paradox of a Liberal Education, 106 HARV. L. REV. 581, 648 (1993) ("[Liberalism] assumes and values the ability of individuals to rationally, objectively, and critically determine their attachments to competing ways of life by distancing themselves from any particular worldview."
    • (1993) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.106 , Issue.581 , pp. 648
    • Stolzenberg, N.M.1
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    • School newspapers, public forum, and the first amendment
    • 506 n.4
    • William G. Buss, School Newspapers, Public Forum, and the First Amendment, 74 IOWA L. REV. 505, 506 n.4 (1989)
    • (1989) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.74 , pp. 505
    • Buss, W.G.1
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    • Tailored: Good faith, civility, and student expression
    • Tinker
    • See also Mark G. Yudof, Tinker Tailored: Good Faith, Civility, and Student Expression, 69 ST. JOHN'S L. REV. 365, 366 (1995) (stating that public schools are increasingly "devoted to the socialization of the young and to the inculcation of values and skills").
    • (1995) St. John's L. Rev. , vol.69 , Issue.365 , pp. 366
    • Yudof, M.G.1
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    • Return of the citizen: A survey of recent work on citizenship theory
    • 357-59, 366-67, 376-77
    • Will Kymlicka & Wayne Norman, Return of the Citizen: A Survey of Recent Work on Citizenship Theory, 104 ETHICS 352, 357-59, 366-67, 376-77 (1994) ("public reasonableness," "political participation," and "sense of common identity")
    • (1994) Ethics , vol.104 , pp. 352
    • Kymlicka, W.1    Norman, W.2
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    • The liberalism of fear
    • Nancy L. Rosenblum ed.
    • Judith N. Shklar, The Liberalism of Fear, in LIBERALISM AND THE MORAL LIFE 21, 33 (Nancy L. Rosenblum ed., 1989) ("habits of patience, self-restraint, respect for the claims of others, and caution")
    • (1989) Liberalism and the Moral Life , vol.21 , pp. 33
    • Shklar, J.N.1
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    • The search for constitutional limits on governmental authority to inculcate youth
    • Tyll van Geel, The Search for Constitutional Limits on Governmental Authority to Inculcate Youth, 62 TEX. L. REV. 197, 275 (1983) (dignity, respect, and autonomy
    • (1983) Tex. L. Rev. , vol.62 , Issue.197 , pp. 275
    • Van Geel, T.1
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    • The first amendment and the socialization of children: Compulsory public education and vouchers
    • Steven H. Shiffrin, The First Amendment and the Socialization of Children: Compulsory Public Education and Vouchers, 11 CORNELL J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 503, 514-22 (2002) (empathy, creativity, and imagination
    • (2002) Cornell J.L. & Pub. Pol'y , vol.11 , Issue.503 , pp. 514-522
    • Shiffrin, S.H.1
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    • 84055225813 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Educating American youth: Lessons from children's human rights law
    • Roger J.R. Levesque, Educating American Youth: Lessons From Children's Human Rights Law, 27 J.L. & EDUC. 173, 185 (1998). These cases tend to arise in the context of sex education or family life education programs.
    • (1998) J.L. & Educ. , vol.27 , Issue.173 , pp. 185
    • Levesque, R.J.R.1
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    • The family and the market: A study of ideology and legal reform
    • Frances E. Olsen, The Family and the Market: A Study of Ideology and Legal Reform, 96 HARV. L. REV. 1497, 1504-13 (1983)
    • (1983) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.96 , Issue.1497 , pp. 1504-1513
    • Olsen, F.E.1
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    • Feminist critiques of the public/private dichotomy
    • Anne Phillips ed.
    • Carole Pateman, Feminist Critiques of the Public/Private Dichotomy, in FEMINISM AND EQUALITY 103 (Anne Phillips ed., 1987). While the prevailing choice model of children's upbringing no longer insists on a gendered split between public and private, its emphasis on the family as the place where private values are nurtured and on schools as the place where the public skills of critical thinking are taught retains elements of this gendered public-private divide.
    • (1987) Feminism and Equality , pp. 103
    • Pateman, C.1
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    • 0042544470 scopus 로고
    • Constitutional privacy and the just family
    • Anne C. Dailey, Constitutional Privacy and the Just Family, 67 TUL. L. REV. 955 (1993
    • (1993) Tul. L. Rev. , vol.67 , pp. 955
    • Dailey, A.C.1
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    • 1842590340 scopus 로고
    • A bill of rights for children
    • Henry H. Foster, Jr. & Doris Jonas Freed, A Bill of Rights for Children, 6 FAM. L.Q. 343, 344 (1972
    • (1972) Fam. L.Q. , vol.6 , Issue.343 , pp. 344
    • Foster Jr., H.H.1    Freed, D.J.2
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    • Developing constitutional rights of, in, and for children
    • Cf. Robert A. Burt, Developing Constitutional Rights of, in, and for Children, 39 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 118, 124 (1975
    • (1975) Law & Contemp. Probs. , vol.39 , Issue.118 , pp. 124
    • Burt, R.A.1
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    • Children's choices or children's interests: Which do their rights protect?
    • supra note 3, 54-57
    • Samantha Brennan, Children's Choices or Children's Interests: Which Do Their Rights Protect?, in The MORAL AND POLITICAL STATUS OF CHILDREN, supra note 3, at 53, 54-57 (contrasting interest theory with choice theory)
    • The Moral and Political Status of Children , pp. 53
    • Brennan, S.1
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    • Childhood competence and autonomy
    • Ferdinand Schoeman, Childhood Competence and Autonomy, 12 J. LEGAL STUD. 267, 268 (1983) ("[T]he protection of relationships, and not just the issue of judgmental capacity, is an important factor to take into account when considering the moral status of the child."). The welfare theory of rights has strong support among proponents of children's rights.
    • (1983) J. Legal Stud. , vol.12 , Issue.267 , pp. 268
    • Schoeman, F.1
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    • See, e.g., MARTIN GUGGENHEIM, WHAT'S WRONG WITH CHILDREN'S RIGHTS 252 (2005) (discussing the law's facilitation of juvenile prosecutions and commenting that "the juvenile rights advocate is well advised to try to find a different way of advancing children's interests than through the rhetoric of 'rights'")
    • (2005) What's Wrong with Children's Rights , pp. 252
    • Guggenheim, M.1
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    • Children's rights and children's lives
    • Philip Alston et al. eds.
    • Onora O'Neill, Children's Rights and Children's Lives, in CHILDREN, RIGHTS, AND THE LAW 24, 25 (Philip Alston et al. eds., 1992) (arguing for a focus on obligations to children rather than children's rights
    • (1992) Children, Rights, and the Law , vol.24 , pp. 25
    • O'neill, O.1
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    • MARTHA MINOW, MAKING ALL THE DIFFERENCE 283 (1990) (arguing for a theory of rights "reconstructed as features of important, communal relationships")
    • (1990) Making All the Difference , pp. 283
    • Minow, M.1
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    • 5th ed.
    • See, e.g., GEOFFREY R. STONE ET AL., CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 475-80 (5th ed. 2005) (identifying Brown as a major race discrimination case).
    • (2005) Constitutional Law , pp. 475-480
    • Stone, G.R.1
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    • Children, paternalism, and education: A liberal argument
    • Amy Gutmann, Children, Paternalism, and Education: A Liberal Argument, 9 PHIL. & PUB. AFF. 338, 349 (1980) ("[A] child's right to compulsory education is a precondition to becoming a rational human being and a full citizen of a liberal democratic society.")
    • (1980) Phil. & Pub. Aff. , vol.9 , Issue.338 , pp. 349
    • Gutmann, A.1
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    • "The right to education" and compulsory schooling
    • Graham Haydon, "The Right to Education" and Compulsory Schooling, 9 EDUC. PHIL. & THEORY 1, 8 (1977) ("[T]here is a human right . . . to be an autonomous person."
    • (1977) Educ. Phil. & Theory , vol.9 , Issue.1 , pp. 8
    • Haydon, G.1
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    • Civic education and liberal legitimacy
    • Harry Brighouse, Civic Education and Liberal Legitimacy, 108 ETHICS 719, 728 (1998) ("[T]he capacities involved in critical reflection help us to live autonomously.")
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    • The field of cognitive psychology reflects a view of the human mind as operating according to structure, rules, and plans, much like the software of a computer processing system. See HOWARD SHEVRIN ET AL., CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS PROCESSES: PSYCHODYNAMIC, COGNITIVE, AND NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL CONVERGENCES 51 (1996). Cognitive research studies how the mind processes information in order to understand "the kinds of information we have in our memories, and the processes involved in acquiring, retaining and using that information."
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    • Donald C. Langevoort, Organized Illusions: A Behavioral Theory of Why Corporations Mislead Stock Market Investors (and Cause Other Social Harms), 146 U. PA. L. REV. 101, 171-72 (1997). For similar discussions in the popular press about individual decisionmaking
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    • For a collection of essays addressing the topic of emotions in law, see generally THE PASSIONS OF LAW (Susan Bandes ed., 1999)
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    • Impairment in emotional interrelatedness is one of the criterion for diagnosis along the autism spectrum. AM. PSYCHIATRIC ASS'N, DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS 75 (4th ed. 2000
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    • For decades, family law theorists have written about the importance of the early caregiving relationship to children's psychological well-being. Goldstein, Freud, and Solnit were the first and most influential family law scholars to write about the child's basic need for attachment. See JOSEPH GOLDSTEIN, ANNA FREUD & ALBERT SOLNIT, BEYOND THE BEST INTERESTS OF THE CHILD 7 (1973)
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    • see also Peter Fonagy & Mary Target, Attachment, Trauma and Psychoanalysis: Where Psychoanalysis Meets Neuroscience, in MIND TO MIND: INFANT RESEARCH, NEUROSCIENCE, AND PSYCHOANALYSIS 15, 23-25 (Elliot J. Jurist et al. eds., 2008) (describing the "evolution of the social brain")
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    • See Robert N. Emde & Joann Robinson, Guiding Principles for a Theory of Early Intervention: A Developmental-Psychoanalytic Perspective, in HANDBOOK OF EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION 160, 174-75 (Jack P. Shonkoff & Samuel J. Meisels eds., 2d ed. 2000
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    • passim
    • Vonnie McLoyd, The Impact of Economic Hardship on Black Families and Children: Psychological Distress, Parenting, and Socioemotional Development, 61 CHILD DEV. 311 passim (1990)
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    • Milagros Nores et al., Updating the Economic Impacts of the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program, 27 EDUC. EVALUATION & POL'Y ANALYSIS 245, 247-52 (2005)
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    • Victoria Seitz et al., Effects of Family Support Intervention: A Ten-Year Follow-Up, 56 CHILD DEV. 376, 387 (1985
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    • State intervention on behalf of "neglected" children: A search for realistic standards
    • citing Michael Wald, State Intervention on Behalf of " Neglected" Children: A Search for Realistic Standards, 27 STAN. L. REV. 985, 993 (1975). The dissent in Santosky downplayed the potentially harmful effects of removal, but did focus on the child's independent interest in "[a] stable, loving home life," specifically identifying the child's future interest in adult citizenship: "Few could doubt that the most valuable resource of a selfgoverning society is its population of children who will one day become adults and themselves assume the responsibility of self-governance . . . ."
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    • Mothers without borders: Undocumented immigrant mothers facing deportation and the best interests of their U.S. citizen children
    • See generally Satya Grace Kaskade, Mothers Without Borders: Undocumented Immigrant Mothers Facing Deportation and the Best Interests of Their U.S. Citizen Children, 15 WM. & MARY J. WOMEN & L. 447 (2009) (detailing the high burden mothers facing deportation must meet when pleading the best interests of their children).
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    • Robin West, Rights, Capabilities, and the Good Society, 69 FORDHAM L. REV. 1901, 1907 (2001). Frank Michelman wrote the seminal work on the rights of poor citizens to basic necessities.
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    • Foreword: On protecting the poor through the fourteenth amendment
    • Frank I. Michelman, Foreword: On Protecting the Poor Through the Fourteenth Amendment, 83 HARV. L. REV. 7 (1969). William Forbath also describes a "social citizenship tradition" in American law that he argues supports affirmative constitutional welfare rights.
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    • William E. Forbath, Constitutional Welfare Rights: A History, Critique and Reconstruction, 69 FORDHAM L. REV. 1821, 1827-28 (2001
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    • But see Robert H. Bork, The Impossibility of Finding Welfare Rights in the Constitution, 1979 WASH. U. L.Q. 695, 695-96
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    • Henry Paul Monaghan, The Constitution Goes to Harvard, 13 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 117, 118 (1978). In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Supreme Court appeared to be moving in the direction of recognizing affirmative rights to certain basic welfare goods.
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    • See VANESSA R. WIGHT ET AL., NAT'L CTR. FOR CHILDREN IN POVERTY, WHO ARE AMERICA'S POOR CHILDREN? 3 (2010), available at http://www.nccp.org/ publications/pdf/text-912.pdf. Forty-six percent of children under age three live in low-income families
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